Protest " Muslimana "

[Nije bitno...*]

Nije bitno...*,
da ti pravo kazem nije me briga za te sto ne shvataju nacionalnu odrednicu Bosnjak , njihova neukost je njihov, a ne moj hendikep.
Ja ti samo mogu reci da to nije sasvim nova, kako Ti kazes, nacionalna odrednica, vec je njeno poreklo staro nekoliko stotina godina, a ti kao „Crnogorac“ , morao bi znati da su Bosnjake i crnogorske vladike uvazavale kao poseban narod. No, o tome ne bi ovom prilikom i to je tema za podforum istorije.

Ja s tim nemam problem.

Ja samo iznosim svoje misljenje, onako kako ja gledam na to.

Da, jer ko si ti da bilo sta osporavas...kao uostalom i svi sa ovog foruma. Ali bih rekao da ti je misljenje pogresno.

Sad polako.
Razlike izmedju Srba i posrbljenih crnogoraca skoro da i nema. Samo sto su ovi posrbljeni “Srbi u usijanju”, kako voli da ih ‘krsti’ njihov idol Risto Radovic zvani Amfilohije, krvolocniji. Medjutim razlika izmedju nacionalnih Crnogoraca i Srba iliti posrbljenih crnogoraca je ogromna. Kao zemlja i nebo uocljiva. Ako u nicemu drugom, a ono u moralnom i svakom drugom, ljudskom pogledu. U novijoj istoriji Crne Gore nije zabelezeno da su nacionalni Crnogorci terorisali nikog , osim sto su sami bili terorisani od Srba. Nije Krsto Zrnov Popovic, nije Blazo Jovanovic i Vidoje Zarkovic, niti Slavko Perovic kidisali na Bosnjake i smisljali zlocine i genocide. To su smisljali srpski zlocinacki bolesni umovi smesteni po srbijanskim institucijama. Oni su slali legije smrti, Srbe iz Srbije, i usijane Srbe iz Crne gore u pljackaske pohode po Bosni i Hercegovini. Oni su koljuci goloruki bosnjacki narod sejali smrt dokle su takli. A, o drugim razlikama izmedju Crnogoraca i Srba mozes se informisati iz najnovijih topika uvazenog nika GRAD ilio ti to moze pojasnigi Grad Heroj i drugi forumasi koji se osecaju nacionalno Crnogorci.

E svasta. Generalizujes preko svake mjere i granice. Svakako da je srpstvo kao ideologija daleko agresivnije nego crnogorstvo, ali to nikako ne vazi za sve CG-Srbe i nacionalne Crnogorce. Ja imam drugova koji se osjecaju Srbima, s kojima svaki dan pijem kafu, a koji nisu niti bi ikad mrava zgazili. Isto tako znam takvih iskljucivih dzukela Crnogoraca, koji se napiju svaki put kad reprezentacija SCG izgubi utakmicu.

Ne smeta meni nicije slobodno izrazavanje, taman posla. Ono sto meni smeta je rezimsko podmetanje i naleganje zmije u legalu crnogorskih Bosnjaka sa ciljem njihovog rastakanja i svodjenja na versku grupaciju ili njihovo tretiranje po verskom, a ne nacionalnom osnovu. Ako su tako dobronamerni, zasto finansiraju samo Maticu muslimansku i daju joj toliku podrsku. Sto se koja crkavica ne odvoji i za Bosnjacke nacionalne institucije? Koliko je Vlada Crne Gore odvojila srestava za Sandzacke igre? I td. Da ne nabrajam. U svemu tome je pozitivno to sto su , izgleda, prestali da se neprimerno odnose prema nama.

Stvarno se nisam puno udubljivao u pitanje finansiranja ove ili one matice. Ono sto ja vidim je da se svaka aktivnost Bosnjaka korektno medijski isprati, za razliku od Muslimana, kojih u medijma skoro i da nema. U svakom slucaju, ne vidim kako bi u interesu vlasti bilo da zapostavljaju nacionalnu manjinu od koje dobijaju znacajan broj glasova...

[monitor]

Zavadi pa vladaj! Isto sve, od kad je svijeta i vijeka.
Sveopstem konsenzusu o nacionalnom imenu Bosnjak suprostavlja se jedan covjek - izlapjeli komunisticki poslusnik, koji se ne moze odreci navike sluganstva. On ima i firmu - pompezno nazvanu Matica muslimanska, a finansira mu je Zna Se Ko. I svugdje ga trpaju, u sve forume o nacijama, a i u onaj famozni Savjet za neku ravnopravnost su ga stavili.
Opet, kad se govori o Albancima, uporno se u svakoj prilici gura termin Malisor kao nesto posebno, pod cime se podrazumijevaju Albanci katolicke vjere. U Malesiji, naravno, ne zive samo katolici, a svi tamosnji zitelji su Malisori, ali se nastoji (i, vidim , uspjeva) naglasiti razlicitost - "vi hriscani s nama, ovi turci gdje hoce." "Vi perjanici kod Kralja Nikole, vi serdari, vi vojvode, vi..." :roll: Vi treba da ste "nasi", da bi "njihovih" bilo sto manje!

[Dobrusky]

Stvarno se nisam puno udubljivao u pitanje finansiranja ove ili one matice. Ono sto ja vidim je da se svaka aktivnost Bosnjaka korektno medijski isprati, za razliku od Muslimana, kojih u medijma skoro i da nema. U svakom slucaju, ne vidim kako bi u interesu vlasti bilo da zapostavljaju nacionalnu manjinu od koje dobijaju znacajan broj glasova...

To sam se i ja cudio.

Vladajuci su svojim antibosnjackim delovanjem sekli granu na koju sede. U zadnje vreme se taj odnos menja, izgleda su se "Turci dosetili" da su radili u korist sopstvene stete, pa je njihov odnos prema nama postao korektniji, ali jos ne onakav kakav bi trebao biti.

[Kralj Tvrtko]

Ante Herceg i Mustafa Banovic

Povijesno-istrazivacko djelo "Razvoj Balkanskih Naroda", Juni/Juli 2002, odlomak "Istorija Bosanskih Srba", str. 244-249, Naucno-Znanstveni Zurnal Istorije Jugoistocne Europe.

Na prostoru Bosne su od pamtivjeka zivjeli Bosnjaci razlicitih vjera. U srednjovjekovnoj Bosni to su bili Bosnjaci heretickog vjerovanja, ali i dio onih Bosnjaka koji su pod prisilom krizarskih ratova primili katolicanstvo, odnosno pravoslavlje. Padom Bosne pod Turke i kasnije Austro-Ugarskom okupacijom Bosne, narod u etnickom smislu sastavu ostaje isti. Bez obzira na vjeru, svi se nastavljaju identifikovati kao Bosnjaci. Sto vise, katolici i pravoslavci su se od pamtivjeka osjecali i identifikovali kao Bosnjaci. Oni su bili Bosnjacki pravoslavci, odnosno Bosnjacki katolici. Pisali su da govore Bosanski jezik i ponosili se na svoju Bosnjacku narodnost.
Termin 'Bosanski Srbi' se javlja tek polovinom 19 stoljeca, kada organizovane grupe politickih misionara (financiranih od strane Srbije) ulaze u Bosnu i pocinju svoj rad na iskorjenjivanju termina Bosnjaci kod nasih pravoslavaca. U tim aktivnostima je bio najaktivniji Teofil (Bogoljub) Petranovic, koji je sredinom 19 stoljeca oko sebe okupio skupine propagandista koji su zalazili po Bosanskim selima i zaseocima i govorili Bosnjacima pravoslavne vjeroispovijesti da je vrijeme da se prestanu identificirati kao Bosnjaci, i da se - na osnovu zajednicke religije - podju identifikovati kao Srbi. Prema rijecima Novaka Kilibarde - koji je napisao predgovor Petranovicevoj knjizi Srpske Narodne Pjesme iz Bosne i Hercegovine - Petranovic je bio najplaceniji povjerenik Srbijanske vlade, te je "za vrijeme boravka u Sarajevu od 1862 do 1869 neprekidno sirio srpsku propagandu." Fra Grga Martic, koji je zivio u Sarajevu u vrijeme Petranovicevih propagandnih aktivnosti, u svojim Zapamcenjima kaze da je Teofil Petranovic bio glavni organizator srpske propagande u Bosni. Prof. Dr. Muhamed Filipovic se slaze, i u jednom od svojih pojasnjenja navodi da su svi ljudi na prostoru Bosne bili "Bosnjaci, sve dok propaganda iz Srbije nije pocela unositi srpsku i hrvatsku nacionalnu svijest u nase pravoslavce i katolike."

Sto se tice pravoslavne crkve na prostoru Bosne, ona nije bila prisutna na teritoriju Bosne prije dolaska Turaka, samo je u Hercegovini igrala vazniju ulogu. U svojoj ranoj srednjovjekovnoj povijesti Hercegovina (Hum) bijase dio kulturnog i politickog svijeta srpskih zupa i knezevina, zajedno sa Zetom (Crna Gora) i Raskom (Sandzak, na jugozapadu Srbije).

S druge strane, cini se da Srpska pravoslavna crkva nije provodila organiziranu aktivnost u Banovini ili Kraljevini Bosni sve dok kralj Tvrtko nije prosirio Bosanski teritorij u sedamdesetim godinama 14. vijeka na gornji tok rijeke Drine (jugoistocno od Sarajeva) i na dijelove danasnje Crne Gore i Srbije ukljucujuci tu i pravoslavni manastir u Milesevi. Iako se sam Tvrtko okrunio za kralja u Milesevi, on je bio i ostao Bosnjacki katolik (uz eventualnu iznimku Ostoje, koji je bio pripadnik Crkve bosanske). Dalje od gornjeg toka rijeke Drine nema u pred-otomanskoj Bosni jasnih tragova pravoslavnih crkava. Jedan srpski istoricar umjetnosti ustvrdio je da jedan pravoslavni manastir u sjevernoj Bosni potjece iz vremena prije dolaska Turaka, ali je njegovo datiranje, prema rijecima britanskog historicara Noel-a Malcolm-a "vrlo nepouzdano" - u krajnju ruku nevjerodostojno i historijski neutemeljeno.

Sto se tice teritorijalne crkvene organizacije, u predotomanskom periodu doista nema tragova prisutnosti Srpske pravoslavne crkve na tlu same Bosne. Medutim, nakon dolaska Turaka slika se pocinje naglo mijenjati.

Od osamdesetih godina 15. vijeka spominju se pravoslavni svecenici i vjernici u mnogim dijelovima Bosne u kojima prije nije bilo ni spomena o njima. Zna se da je nekoliko pravoslavnih manastira podignuto u 16. vijeku (u Tavni, Lomnici, Papraci, Ozrenu i Gostovicu), a vazni manastir Rmanj u sjeverozapadnoj Bosni prvi put se spominje 1515. godine. Te nove gradevine jos vise iznenaduju kad se zna da je zakonom kanun-i raya bilo zabranjeno gradenje novih crkava - ocito je da su otomanske vlasti svaki put morale izdati posebno odobrenje.

Premda su pravoslavni vjernici ugnjetavani, nije pretjerano kazati da je otomanski rezim favorizirao pravoslavnu crkvu. Bosnjacki pravoslavci su imali svoju sredisnju vjersku vlast u samom Otomanskom Carstvu, a bosnjacki katolici izvan njega pa nije bilo dvojbe da bi se smatrali oslobodenim kad bi neka katolicka sila ponovo osvojila Bosnu. Bosanski mitropolita (pravoslavni biskup) spominje se prvi put tek 1532. godine, a prva pravoslavna crkva u Sarajevu sagradena je tek sredinom 16. stoljeca.

U krajevima u kojima je pravoslavlje polucilo najvece uspjehe, posebno na sjeveru Bosne, u tom se razdoblju nastanilo mnogo doseljenika iz pravoslavnih zemalja. Ocito je posrijedi bila otomanska politika da naseli podrucja koja su bila opustjela, bilo zbog rata ili kuge. Vec u prvim defterima pojavljuju se skupine krscanskih cobana, koji se deklariraju kao Vlasi sto su se naselili u opustosenim krajevima istocne Hercegovine. U defterima iz sedamdesetih i osamdesetih godina 15. vijeka moze se razabrati da se Vlasi sire po srednjoj Bosni, u krajevima oko Visokog i Maglaja. Negdje odmah iza 1476. godine, na primjer, oko 800 vlaskih obitelji naselilo se u kraju oko Maglaja, zajedno sa dvojicom pravoslavnih svecenika. U iducih pedesetak godina nastavio je rasti broj Vlaha u srednjoj i sjeveroistocnoj Bosni, a poceli su se doseljavati i u sjeverozapadnu Bosnu. U ratovima na pocetku 16. stoljeca opustjelo je jos vise krajeva u sjevernoj Bosni jer su katolici bjezali na habsburski teritorij. Buduci da je Osmanlijama bilo vazno da ne ostave prazan prostor blizu vojne granice, uslijedio je jos jedan velik priljev vlaskih doseljenika iz Hercegovine i Srbije. Za cijelog 17. vijeka bilo je jos doseljavanja na to podrucje, jer su ne samo rat nego i kuga ostavljali za sobom demografske praznine koje je trebalo popuniti.

Taj je vlaski element bio toliko vazan u nastanku Bosanskog pravoslavnog stanovnistva da se jos i nakon tri stoljeca izraz "Vlah" upotrebljavao u Bosni u znacenju "pripadnik pravoslavne Crkve". Bosanski Vlasi su potpuno odgovarali ciljevima otomanske vlasti, ne samo zato sto su bili pokretni (tipicne su im poslovne djelatnosti bile stocarstvo, uzgoj konja i organiziranje prijevoza robe za trgovce). Bosanski Vlasi nisu predstavljali neku vecu opasnost Bosnjacima, jer su Bosnjaci bili daleko brojniji od cobanskih skupina Vlaha.

Vlasima su odobrene posebne povlastice kako bi ih naveli da se nasele uz otomansko-habsbursku granicu - smanjen je porez na ovce za one koji zive u pogranicnom podrucju, a njihovim su glavarima dodijeljeni veliki timari. Iako nisu primali vojnu placu, imali su pravo nositi oruzje i od njih se ocekivalo da obavljaju vojnu funkciju; umjesto place, dopusteno im je pljackanje neprijateljskog teritorija. U prvim zapisima Bosanski Vlasi se cesto spominju kao prilicno prolazna pojava nalik na sjenu. Selili su se iz jednog kraja u drugi, govorili lokalne jezike i stapali se s lokalnim stanovnistvom.

Buduci da su sjeverna Albanija i juzna Srbija bile prvobitno srediste Vlaha, nije cudo sto su se Vlasi vrlo rano prosirili na obliznje gorske krajeve Hercegovine. Odatle su se preselili na sjever, preko brdovitog zaleda Dalmacije, gdje se vec u 12. stoljecu spominje da cuvaju stada (a u zimu ih dovode u primorje). Izmedu 13. i 15. vijeka o njima je cesto rijec u kronikama Dubrovnika i Zadra. Neki od tih vlaskih cobana prodrli su i do srednje Bosne, gdje o njihovoj prisutnosti svjedoce srednjovjekovna imena mjesta u krajevima oko Sarajeva i Travnika: Vlahinja, Vlaskovo, Vlasic.

Danasnji Bosanski Srbi su zapravo Bosnjaci i dijelom Bosanski Vlasi koji su se - pod propagandistickim okolnostima Bogoljuba (Teofila) Petranovica i slicnih - uklopili u preko-drinski Srpski narodni okvir. Asimilirani Vlasi su pridonijeli ogromnom porastu Srpskog stanovnistva u Bosni. Nazivati nekoga "Bosanskim Srbinom" znaci sluziti se pojmom stvorenim u 19. vijeku koji je propagiran politicko-misionarskim djelovanjem propagandista placenih od Vlade Srbije. Termin 'Bosanski Srbin', koji se prvi puta javlja tek polovinom 19 stoljeca, odnosi se na Bosnjake pravoslavne vjeroispovijesti (i dio Vlaha) koji su se na temelju zajednicke religije - a pod znatnim propagandnim pritiskom srpskih politickih propagandista - odrodili od svog Bosnjackog nacionalnog korpusa (i dijelom Vlaskog segmenta) i asimilirali u Srpski nacionalni korpus.

Vrijedno je napomenuti da su danasnji Bosanski Srbi - usljed asimilacije dijela Vlaha - dobrim dijelom jedina komponenta Bosansko-Hercegovackog stanovnistva koja je neslavenskog porijekla. Sto se tice Vlaha, danas ih u Bosni gotovo da i nema. Kroz istoriju, Vlasi su zadrzali svoju autohtonost i samosvojnost jedino na istoku Srbije.

Po svim istorijskim i civilizacijskim pravilima, danasnji Bosanski Srbi bi sebe nacionalno trebali deklarisati kao Bosnjaci pravoslavne vjeroispovijesti ili pak, manjim dijelom, Bosanski Vlasi. Nazalost, imamo situaciju da su nekadasnji Bosnjaci pravoslavne vjeroispovijesti (tj. prisilno pokrsteni hereticki Bosnjaci) zaboravili, ili pak dobrovoljno odbacili u zaborav svoju pradjedovsku Bosnjacku (i dijelom Vlasku) pripadnost , te se uklopili u tudji nacionalni okvir

[Grad Heroja]

Slusaj ti komsija ,kod vas se ´vjera nabija laz na sramotu,
i ja se ne cudim njemu sto je tak reka ,no kako bi bi hajduci se ponasali na njegovome mjestu ??=?

'Pockanii narod je vazda kod crnogoraa bi pockani njarodm !'
Aznalo se i dan danas zna , da su se casni i posteni crnogorci na KOLAC nabijali da prodaju svoju vjeru "CASNU" ,ma.... NIJESU !!!
Zato se ja danas zovem DRAGAN !!!

[Berankrsh69]

The Slav Muslims of Yugoslavia


used without permission, for "fair use" only

In a small red-tiled-roof house clinging precariously to the hillside above the city, six-year-old Mustafa lies in bed, his blue eyes reddened by tears. Beside him sits his grandmother, her gay, braided hair hidden by a white scarf pulled low over her forehead and knotted tightly just under her lower lip. Her voluminous cotton-print pantaloons billow out around her in splash of bright color, entirely obscuring the low stool on which she is perched.

The cramped room is festively decorated with balloons and streamers of red, white, blue, and green crepe paper. Woven Oriental rugs called cilimi cover the rough wooden planks of the floor, and a garish machine-made tapestry depicting the minaret-studded skyline of some imaginary Islamic city hangs above the bed. Earlier, Mustafa, dressed elegantly in a special white suit and cap, had--with much fanfare--been paraded proudly about the neighborhood. And then, upon his return home and in the presence of male family members who--with considerable good humor--energetically encouraged the youngster to bear his pain heroically, Mustafa was circumcised by a ritual specialist.

Through this age-old custom (common to Muslims and Jews alike), the boy's masculinity was symbolically and publicly reaffirmed. Now, bandaged and relieved that his ordeal is finally over, Mustafa listens to the lively sounds of the celebration being held in his honor outside. Below his window, on a small terrace overlooking the maze of narrow, meandering alley-ways that descend steeply into the hear of the city, family, relatives, friends, and neighbors are gathered around a long makeshift table. A seemingly endless variety of Middle Eastern sweets and a host of other delicacies--round flat pies of sheep cheese baked between oiled leaves of phyllo dough) cabbage rolls in a pungent red-pepper sauce (sarma); spit-barbecued lamb laced with garlic; spiced ground meat baked between layers of eggplant, onion, and potato (musaka); roasted peppers marinated in garlic and oil; and several kinds of baklava--are heaped on the table,

Contrary to the custom of more conservative Muslim families, plum brandy and wine are offered the guests in great quantities, in addition to the traditional little cups of thick Turkish coffee. Also in contrast to prevailing custom in many parts of the Islamic world, women have joined the men rather than holding their own separate celebration our of public view.

In the distance, the setting sun silhouettes the spires of pencil-sharp minarets in the city skyline against the amber haze of the late-summer sky. The shrill cry of the muezzin announces aksam, the fourth of five obligatory daily Islamic prayers, and the faithful, for the most part older men, gather languidly in the walled courtyard of the Gazi Husrev Bey Mosque (the city's largest mosque, it was built in 1530 by the nephew of Turkish Sultan Bayazit II). The more traditional elders wear maroon fezzes or small white knit skullcaps, while younger men sport dark berets pulled down squarely on their heads to eyebrow level.

Placing their shoes and sandals on wooden racks under the arched portico at the entrance to the mosque, the worshipers performs their ritual ablutions, washing their faces, hands, and feet at the courtyard fonts before entering the cool, high-domed interior to prostrate themselves toward Mecca on the multihued Persian carpets that adorn the floor from wall to wall. On this sultry afternoon, the daily cycle of Islamic life persists as it has for generations.

Historical perspectives

But these events did not take place in a part of the world usually associated with Islam. They occurred in Sarajevo, the capital of the Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina near the very geographical heart of this European socialist state. Nor are the participants described here transplanted Turks or Arabs; but they are the Slavic-speaking descendants of native Bosnians who converted to Islam during the more than four hundred years of Ottoman Turkish domination.

Many American and other Western visitors to the Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games were surprised to discover that much of the city and the surrounding countryside had a strong Middle Eastern flavor, and that the population, Muslim and Christian alike, although indistinguishable in physical appearance from other southeastern Europeans, was profoundly influenced by Islamic culture. Prior to the Olympics, Sarajevo was principally known as the site of the assassination by a Bosnian Serb nationalist of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian and Hungarian crowns, an even that sparked the beginning of World War I. However, this tragedy was simply the continuation of a long history of political and religious conflict along this volatile frontier between West and East, the region a nineteenth-century British travel writer once labeled, with typical Victorian ethnocentrism, "savage Europe.''

In the seventh century, Slavic tribes arriving from the far reaches of eastern Europe settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where they conquered and absorbed the native population of Latins, Illyrians, Thracians, and others. This region, lying on the border between Roman and Byzantine civilizations, was fiercely contested by both Western and Eastern Christianity.

This conflict was further aggravated in the tenth century by the spread of the Bogomil heresy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it quickly attracted many converts. The Bogomils believed that the material world was Satan's creation, and they rejected the Old Testament, the incarnation of Christ, the sacraments, the cross and the entire organization of the Christian church. By the twelfth century, Bogomilism had become the religion of the Bosnian elite and many of the common people.

In spite of periods of relative independence, Bosnia continued to be pressured and attacked by its neighbors--by the Catholic Croats, Hungarians, and Venetians to the north and west, and by the Orthodox Serbs to the east and south. Thus, it appears that the Bosnians may have welcomed the Ottoman conquest in 1463, seeing a similarity between their own faith and Islam of the Turks. However, the historical record is not entirely clear in this respect, and it is possible that Bogomilism was already on the wane by that time and the acceptance of Islam simply represented an expedient political and economic decision. In either case, the ruling classes quickly accepted Islam and in so doing were able to retain their privileged position.

Among the peasantry the new belief seems to have taken hold much more gradually over several centuries. What is evident is that Bogomilism quickly disappeared, and today almost all that remains are enigmatically carved stone sarcophagi that, here and there, grace remote areas of the rugged Bosnian and Herzegovinian landscape.

Under Turkish rule, much of what is today central, eastern, and southern Yugoslavia took on a distinctly Islamic character. This was particularly true of urban life in places where native elites had fled, converted to Islam, or otherwise adopted Ottoman customs and life-styles. Moreover, the cities, which were the centers of Turkish administration and commerce, experienced considerable immigration from the vast reaches of the empire. Thus their populations became a kaleidoscopic mixture of Muslim and Christian Slavs, Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Sephardic Jews, Gypsies and others, all of whom left their cultural imprint on modern South Slav culture.

In Bosnia, however, it was not an entirely alien aristocracy that dominated the society (as in many other parts of the Balkans) but a native one. These Muslim Slavs constituted an urban elite and a landed, feudal gentry. Below them in the social hierarchy were peasant freeholders, the majority of whom were Slav Muslims. On the bottom rung of the hierarchy were Christian serfs, most of whom were Orthodox Serbs, subjected to heavy taxation and other indignities.

As in other parts of the Turkish Empire, Bosnia was ruled under the millet system, an institution that organized the adherents of the various faiths into separate communities governed internally by their own ecclesiastical leaders. Thus it was religion rather than language or other cultural markers that determined group identity, a phenomenon reflected in contemporary Yugoslavia by the fact that the Serbs, Croats, and Bosnian Muslims, who speak the same language and share many cultural traits, regard themselves as belonging to distinct ethnic groups based on their respective Orthodox, Catholic, and Islamic heritage.

In Bosnia it was the urban and aristocratic classes who accepted Islam in its purest and most conventional form, in contrast to the peasantry, who have retained to this day many pagan and non-Islamic traits, including the veneration of Christian saints and holy places. The Turkish governor or Bosnia, the vali, was often a Slav Muslim, and Bosnians frequently rose to positions of great importance in the Ottoman Empire. For example, Grand Vizier Mehmet-Pasha Sokolovich, who is credited with building the graceful, stone-arched bridge over the Drina river at Visegrad as a tribute to his native Bosnia, was a son of Christian parents taken in his youth as part of the "levy of boys'' (devshirme) to serve in the Turkish bureaucracy. Although members of the Slav Muslim elite retained the Serbo-Croatian language, they nevertheless imitated the customs and dress of the Turkish court and, as is so often the case with converts, displayed great zeal in their new faith.

By the nineteenth century, with the Ottoman Empire in sharp decline, Bosnian Muslims found themselves increasingly isolated and alienated from Istanbul. Reforms introduced by the Turks to pacify the Christian population were fanatically resisted, and a number of uprisings broke out against Sultan Mahmud II, whom the Bosnian aristocrats, the beys, regarded as a heretic and traitor to Islam. Turkish authority was further weakened by numerous revolts throughout the Balkans by the Christian Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks. Finally, under pressure from Germany, Russia, and Austria and besieged by their own subjects, the Ottomans agreed in 1878 to relinquish effective administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary. This heralded a new era of European influence and westernization.

Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina were incorporate into a newly created South Slav state. Under Yugoslav rule, the influence of the Muslim elite declined sharply. For instance, the land reforms of 1919 deprived it of much of its former privilege and wealth. During the interwar period and through the end of World War II, both the Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats vied for the ethnic loyalty and political support of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Muslims, who were not yet regarded as a nationality in their own right. During the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina were the site of bitter interethnic strife and open warfare, with the Muslims frequently caught between opposing forces. In 1945, with the establishment of a Marxist regime under the leadership of Tito, Bosnia-Herzegovina became one of Yugoslavia's six constituent republics. This union was due in part to a desire to resolve the conflicting Serbian and Croatian claims to the region, as well as to its ethnically mixed population, of which Muslims form a plurality of about forty percent.

Islam in contemporary Yugoslavia

Out of a total Yugoslav population of approximately twenty-five million, there are slightly more than four million Sunni Muslims, of whom a little more than half are Slavs. Of the non-Slavic Muslims, the vast majority are Albanians living in the Kosovo Autonomous Region of Serbia and in parts of western Macedonia. In addition there are significant Muslim enclaves composed of Turks, Gypsies, and others who trace their origins to various parts of the former Ottoman Empire.

About 90 percent of Slav Muslims live within the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, with the remainder found largely in Serbia and Montenegro. They have been officially recognized as an ethnic group since the census of 1961, when they were allowed to declare themselves as "Muslims as a nationality.'' Thus they constitute one of the most important ethnic communities among the more than two dozen that make up contemporary Yugoslavia, the most multinational state in Europe with the exception of the Soviet Union. In this respect, Slav Muslims form both a religious and an ethnic category--concept alien to many Americans, who perceive religious affiliation almost exclusively in terms of spiritual commitment. As a Bosnian communist sociologist once remarked to me, "I am culturally a Muslim, not a believer.'' In other words, while there are significant numbers of Slav Muslims who practice their faith to varying degrees, for others, this identity tends to be secular and is based primarily on ancestral traditions and ethnic loyalty.

The Yugoslav Marxist regime, while not prohibiting religious expression, nevertheless placed significant restrictions on Muslims and Christians alike. The doctrine of the separation of church and state was affirmed while at the same time there was considerable interference in the internal affairs of religious bodies. Moreover, membership in the Communist Party, which was a key to occupational mobility in the new society, precluded active religious participation. In the case of Islam, the religious shari'a courts were outlawed, and the wearing the veil and polygyny forbidden. Similarly, compulsory educational laws requiring schooling through the eighth grade significantly affected Muslim women.

Nevertheless, in recent times, there has been a great relaxation of official attitudes toward religion, accompanied by a marked revival of Islam and Christianity in both private and public life. For example, this trend is mirrored by the recent completion of a majestic, arabesque mosque in the Croatian capital of Zagreb. Similarly, what will be the largest Orthodox church in Europe is now under construction in the very heart of Belgrade, the capital of both Serbia and Yugoslavia. However, these phenomena must not be understood solely in religious terms but should be seen as well as symbols of the resurgence of Islamic and Serbian nationalism.

Sarajevo: the cradle of Slavic Islam

Probably no other place in Yugoslavia so personifies the influence of Islam as Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, an ethnically diverse city where the past coexists in vivid contrast with the present. With its almost 500,000 people, of whom approximately half are Slav Muslims, Sarajevo is by Balkan standards a major urban center.

Approaching the city from the west across the Sarajevo Plain, one is greeted by rows of dreary, nondescript blocks of hastily constructed concrete apartment buildings, factories, and sterile government and commercial complexes that could be found in almost any corner of the developing Third World. These are the fruit of the ambitious and all-too-often uncritical modernization schemes pursued by the socialist government following World War II. Here there is little hint of the architectural and cultural wonders to be found only a few kilometers to the east in the seher, or "old town,'' nestled against the steep hills and precipitous cliffs that ring it on three sides.

Located at sixteen hundred feet in the narrow valley of the Miljacka River and on the rugged hills that parallel its course, Sarajevo has been the site of human settlement from at least Neolithic times. Many peoples have lingered here--Romans, Illyrians, Byzantines, Goths, Slavs, Turks, Sephardic Jews, and Austro-Hungarians. But it is the imprint of the Slavs and Turks that has endowed the city with its distinctive character and mystique.

From the mountain heights above Sarajevo, one views an almost magical panorama of the old town, lying at the foot of a deep gorge and bisected by the silver ribbon of the Miljacka (crossed at regular intervals by low, stone-arched bridges). Dozens of slender minarets thrust skyward above the green copper domes of the multitude of mosques that adorn the city. On the north bank of the river loom the five ornate cupolas of the Serbian Orthodox cathedral, standing in sharp contrast to the almost Teutonic simplicity of a nearby Roman Catholic Campanile. On the very horizon, the twentieth century imposes itself gracelessly in the form of incongruous, boxlike high rises.

Sarajevo, which derives its name from a palace (sarai) built there by the Turks shortly after their conquest of Bosnia, had become the most important urban center in the central Balkans by the mid-sixteenth century. During this period, the city's wealthy and influential patron, the Grand Vizier Husrev Bey, ordered the construction of exquisite examples of Turkish religious and secular architecture. It was at this time that Sarajevo took on the distinctive character it has maintained to the present.

Throughout the Turkish occupation the city grew, with the addition of mosques, religious schools, libraries, monasteries, mausoleums, Turkish baths, fountains, bridges, inns, elegant homes of the elite, and a clock tower (sahat-kula), built in the late sixteenth century, that marks the hours of obligatory Muslim prayer in Arabic numerals on its face. Like other Balkan towns that expanded under Ottoman rule, Sarajevo centers around a central marketplace, the bascarsija. The market is reached through a mazeway of narrow alleys bordered by the small, shuttered shops of traditional craftsmen proffering copper and brassware, pewter, objects of carved wood, silver filigree, woven Oriental rugs, and a variety of other traditional goods now geared in great part to the summer tourist trade. Nearby is the copper-domed bazaar, the brusa bezistan once a warehouse for merchandise along the caravan route from Europe to the Middle East and now a store selling Yugoslav handicrafts.

Sarajevo's Middle Eastern heritage is evident not in its monuments alone but also in the myriad of small details that make up everyday life. Coffeehouses prosper, with their male clientele lingering over small cups of pungent Turkish coffee. Oriental sweetshops abound, offering such temptations as halva, lukum, baklvav, kadaif, and boza (a drink made from fermented corn and often mixed with lemonade), as well as more familiar ice cream and candies. Here and there in the old town are found typical Muslim restaurants called ascinice; food is prepared in full view of the patrons, and one may select directly from the cooking pot. Roast meats are popular, and the pungent odor of kebabs and cevapicici (small, sausage-shaped patties of spiced, ground meats) wafts from the charcoal grill--a ubiquitous feature of Bosnian restaurants--or from a café's open courtyard, where a lamb is turned slowly on a spit over a flickering fire or oak logs.

But even in the realm of cuisine the clash of cultures is evident, the apple strudel and honey-drenched baklava may appear at the same meal. Similarly, women in the latest European styles share the city streets with their more traditional counterparts, who are garbed in voluminous pantaloons of multicolored cotton print (dimije) or equally gaudy ankle-length skirts appropriate to Muslim female modesty. Circumventing the illegality of the veil, occasionally an older woman, upon passing a strange man on the street, will quickly pull her ample headscarf across her face, revealing only the eyes.

Middle Eastern influence is reflected in almost every aspect of life. A guest visiting one of the modest homes in the old residential quarter of Bembasa, after climbing the steep, winding cobblestone streets, most likely will be greeted by the hostess, holding a brass tray bearing a bowl of sweet fruit or rose preserves, a cup of thick Turkish coffee, a small spoon, and a glass of cold water, the traditional sign of hospitality. Some homes, although contemporary in other aspects, set aside one room, referred to as the turksa soba (Turkish room), which is furnished and decorated entirely in Islamic style. Woven Oriental rugs cover the floor, and one sits at low tables, either cross-legged or reclining against the bolsters (minder) that encircle the room's lower walls. Such a room maybe heated by a single small, freestanding brass brazier of Turkish origin called a mangalo, which serves both a practical and decorative function.

Everywhere one encounters evidence of the centuries-long Turkish occupation of Bosnia. The Serbo-Croatian speech of the area is rich in borrowings, not only from Turkish but from Arabic and Persian as well. Muslim Slavs bear Islamic first names such as Muhamet, Omer, Ahmet, Ismet, Azra, Fatima, and Esma, which distinguish them from their Serbian and Croatian compatriots. In most cases, they can also be identified by such surnames as Hasanovic, Bajramovic, and Sulejmanovic, which, although Slavic in grammatical form, are derived from Islamic given names.

The Bosnian musical tradition is particularly rich in Middle Eastern elements. For example, the Turks introduced the sax, tambura, and sargija--plucked stringed instruments probably of Persian origin--and, with them, oriental modes, rhythms, singing styles, and lyrical motifs that were adopted by Christians and Muslims alike. Perhaps the most notable and sophisticated of these traditions is the sevdalinka, a melancholy and sometimes erotic ballad whose name is derived from the Turkish word sevdah (love). Such songs still enjoy wide popularity and are performed on records, at concerts, in restaurants, or in the more authentic atmosphere of the numerous "honky-tonk'' cafes that provide an arena for male conviviality and revelry. In this respect, Bosnians are noted for the extravagant demonstrations of emotion produced by these songs. In such cases, they say that a man has "fallen into sevdah,'' a condition best described as an ecstatic, trance like state with erotic overtones.

Islam as a living South Slav tradition

These few examples of Islam's impact in Yugoslavia only suggest the richness of Middle Eastern influence in the Balkans. What is clear is that the imposition of Islam on native Slavs involved a great deal more than simple religious conversion. Simultaneously, elements of an entire culture and life-style were transplanted and adopted to varying degrees by Bosnian Muslims and Christians alike. At the same time, it should be noted that what anthropologist George Foster has called "conquest culture'' is never identical in its new setting to that of the homeland. Alien traits must adapt to local conditions and, once transplanted, develop and change independently of their source. Thus, Yugoslav Islam is not, and never was, an exact replica of its Turkish model. For example the practice of first-cousin marriage between the children of brothers (bint'amn), so common in much of the Middle East, is extremely rare among Yugoslav Muslims. Rather, Bosnians have been deeply influenced in this respect by the prohibitions of their Christian neighbors.

Today, Yugoslavia's Islamic heritage exists not only on the periphery of the Muslim world but in a largely Christian and partially secular context. In spite of some reverberations of Islamic fundamentalism, South Slav Muslims assume for the most part a relatively unmilitant stance toward their faith. What one encounters in Yugoslavia is a wealth of Muslim and quasi-oriental traditions, and a gentle brand of Islam where the breaking of Koranic law or custom will rarely, if ever, result in dire consequences. Nevertheless, Islam provides a strong symbol of ethnic identity for an important element of Yugoslavia's heterogeneous population.



Andrei Simic

is associate professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California. He is a specialist in Balkan cultures, ethnic groups in the United States, and visual anthropology.

[Berankrsh69]

THE OTTOMAN MILITARY ORGANIZATION

Ihsan Erkoc

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One of the main factors of the Ottoman Empire, which was founded in 1299 by Osman Begh, was it’s military organization. My subject is the Ottoman military organization of the 16th century, yet I have to give some information about the previous centuries.

THE FOUNDATION ERA

When the Ottoman Empire was founded in 1299, it was made up of a small Turcoman tribe and it’s army was relatively small. During Osman Begh’s reign, the Ottoman army was consisted only from light riders called “Ghazi” and later “Akinji”, who were recruited only in times of war. When the war was over, these warriors returned to their everyday lives. These light Turcoman riders later formed the basis of Ottoman Akinji corps, who were one of the best troops of the 16th century Ottomans. Their weapons incluided sabres, lances, arrows, composite bows and sometimes small bucklers for protection; altough they didn’t generally wear armor. Since they were recruited only in times of war, they didn’t also have a uniform and wore their daily clothes; even tough they sometimes wore helmets. Their main tactics were ambushing the slower troops of their enemies, raining arrows on them and then charging to break the enemy lines. During sieges, they got off from their horses and fought as dismounted.

When the small beghlik of Osman expanded, this military organization became insufficiant, and during Orkhan Begh’s reign, after the Siege of Nicomedia, the first permanent Ottoman army was formed. This army was divided into “Yaya” infantries and “Müsellem” cavalries, who were recruited from the local people. They wore a kind of uniform, whose examples can be seen in Ottoman miniature books like Hünername. Their armaments were similar to those of used by Osman’s forces. They were organized insmall divisions made up of 30 men and these divisions were called as “Ocak”. The yayas and müsellems were moved to background service in the 15th century, and they were used in bridge consturctions and road clean-ups. During the 16th century, the müsellems had turned to infantries, rather than cavalries of the 14th century. During 15th-16th centuries, the müsellem divisions were formed from local Christians in Rumelia, while in Asia Minor, Turcoman peasants were chosen. The müsellems of Asia Minor were also called as “Yörük”, a name used to define the nomadic Turcoman tribes of the Taurus Mountains.

During Murad I’s reign, several important changes were made in the organization and unit structure of the Ottoman army. While yayas and müsellems lost their importance, new units like azebs (also called as azap), sipahis and Kapikulu Palace Corps were formed. You will find more information about these units in the following pages.

The Classical Ottoman Military Organization greately shaped during Mehmed II the Conqueror’s reign. During the 15th-16th centuries, the size of the army increased greately, while new weapons like firearms were beginning to be used. During the 17th century, the corruption of Kapikulu Corps, the loss of importance of the Toprakli cavalries (sipahis), the newly-developed European military tactics and the Ottomans to keep their obsolete tactics caused the Ottoman military to decline rapidly. This decline speeded up in the 18th century and even tough reforms were made during the 19th century, the Ottoman military couldn’t recover. This situation continued until Mustafa Kemal Atatürk expelled the Greek Army from Asia Minor in 1922 and declared Turkey a republic.



THE CLASSICAL OTTOMAN MILITARY ORGANIZATION
In the Classical Ottoman Military Organization, the army was divided into two main parts just like the Roman armies: The Kapikulu Corps and the Eshkinji Provincial Troops. While the Kapikulu Corps served as Palace Regiments (like the Roman Praetorians), the Eshkinjis were consisted of provincial troops and auxiliaries summoned during war time. This organizations was first formed during the 14th century, was greatley shaped up into a good organization during the 15th century, began to corrupt and decline during the 17th century and was replaced by a more modern-looking army in the 19th century.

THE KAPIKULU PALACE CORPS
The Kapikulu Corps were founded by the Grand Vizier Chandarli Kara Halil and Kara Rüstem of Karaman during Murad I’s reign. These corps were the Ottoman version of the Seljuk Ghulam Guards, who were founded by the Abbasids and were in use since the 8th century. “Kapi”, originially used as Kapu, meaned “The Gate” in Turkish but represented the Palace, while “Kapikulu” meant “Palace Guard”. The Kapikulu Corps were the first permament army of Europe, and they got regular monthly payments called “ulufe” or “mevajib” in three months. The Kapikulu Corps were divided into Kapikulu Infantries and Kapikulu Cavalries; while the size of these corps increased as time passed. During the 16th century, the total number of Kapikulu guards were barely 30.000; during the late-16th-17th centuries, the number rose up to 75-80.000. Since the number of janissaries rose up so rapidly that during the early-19th century, there were more than 150-160.000 Kapikulu troops.



a) Ajemioghlan Corps: Ajemi Oghlans were the young children raised up to become either Kapikulu guards or Enderun Palace students. In earlier times, the Ajemi Oghlans were recruited from 1/5 of all captives, a system called as Penchik system. The recruits were also called as Penchik Oghlan. As the empire grew in size, this system became insufficiant in supplying recruits, and was replaced by the famous Devshirme System.

According to the Devshirme System; an officer had to visit Christian villages each year, and had to collect children with the help of the local Sanjak Beghi, a "kadi" (judge) and a Christian priest. These children were registered in the palace and sent to the Turkish villages in Anatolia and Rumelia. They were trained in the Islamic and Turkish traditions and after their educations were completed in the villages, they were sent to the barracks in Istanbul. There, they were trained in a very disciplined manner (their trainigs incluided, archery, marksmanship, and cold steel using) and after a ceremony called "Kapiya Chikma", they were registered in the Kapikulu Corps. More intelligent Ajemi Oghlans were sent to Enderun, the Imperial Palace School, and were trained in literature, horseback riding, writing, reading and such stuff. These guys were called as "Ich Oghlan" and the best of these rose up to become Viziers or Grand Viziers. The Devshirme System was implied in a very strict manner during 14th-16th centuries; however, after 1568, this way of recruitment began to lose favor and the last Devshirme was made in 1648. After this, the Kapikulu Corps were opened to all kinds of men and soon, many jobless peasants and criminals began to fill the corps. The Ajemioghlan Corps were also abolished after 1648, since no Devshirme could be recruited after that year.

The size of these corps were no more than 10.000 at all, and was around 7.000. The commander of these corps was the Agha of Istanbul, who was also the General-In-Chief of the capital.

The Devshirme recruits were sent to these places: Ajemioghlan Corps, Bostanji Palace Guard Corps, Tophane Artillery Corps, Kapikulu Corps, Imperial Workshops and Imperial Palaces in Topkapi, Galata and Edirne.

Uniforms and Weaponry: When the ajemi oghlans were first recruited from the villages, they were given a red head gear and a red coat. After their educations in villages ended, they were given a uniform consisted of a yellow "külah" (head gear in the shape of a cone) and a blue coat. Daggers were the only weapons they were allowed to carry.

b) Yenicheri Janissary Corps: The Yenicheri Janissary Corps were the largest corps of the Kapikulu. These corps, founded in 1362 during Murad I's reign, contained one of the best units of the Ottoman armies.

Organization: The Yenicheri Corps were divided into units called "Orta", which were divided into units called "Oda". Each orta was consisted of 60 men, and all the 196 ortas formed the "Ojak". Each orta had it's own symbol, called "Nishan", which were tatooded on tents, goods and arms and were considered as sacred. Besides nishans, the yenicheri ojak had it's own standarts and "Tugh"s, which were made from horse hair. The most common of those standarts carried the Surah of Conquest written in Arabic. The other important symbol of the ortas were their "Kazan"s, or cauldrons. Kazans were also considered as sacred, were respected and if a kazan was lost to the enemy, that orta was punished. While rioting, the yenicheries always overturned their cauldrens, which was a sign of mispleasure.

The Nishans of Yenicheri Corps (top left: nishans of Jemaat Ortas from ortas 1 to 41; top right: nishans of Jemaat Ortas from ortas 42 to 81; bottom left: nishans of Jemaat Ortas from 81 to 101 and Bölük Ortas from 1 to 20; bottom right: nishans of Bölük Ortas from 21 to 61)

Some of the Ottoman Banners (1: Banner of the sultans; 2: Cavalry Lance; 3:Banner of the sultans; 4 & 5: Ottoman Tughs; 6:Banner of pashas; 7:Banner of Toprakli Cavalries; 8: Banner of Kapikulu Cavalry Corps; 9: Banner of Silahdar Corps; 10: Banner of Topchu Corps; 11: Banner of Yenicheri Corps; 12: Banner of Gönüllüs; 13: Banner of Delil Cavalries; 14: Banner of Kapikulu Sipahi Corps; 15: Banner of Humbaraji Corps)

The first ten ortas were called as Agha Bölüks, from 11 to 101 as Jemaat Bölüks and from 102 to 134 as Sekban Bölüks. Each orta was commanded by a "Chorbaji" and all the 196 ortas were commanded by the Yenicheri Aghasi (Agha of the Janissaries). The other officer ranks were these (from the highest to lowest): Yenicheri Aghasi, Sekbanbashi, Kul Kethudasi, Zagharjibashi, Saksonjubashi, Turnajibashi, Haseki, Bashchavush, Bashdeveji, Deveji, Bashyayabashi, Muhzir Agha, Kethüda Yeri and Bashbölükbashi.

During the battles, a band of musicians were formed called Mehteran, who played military marches to encourage the friendly troops, demolorize the enemy and to carry off orders to the soldiers. The Mehterhane was a part of the Ojak and went to the campaigns with the yenicheries. The marches of Mehterhane usually struck fear into the hearts of the enemies, who were demolorized.

When the yenicheri corps were first founded in 1362, there were only a thousand yenicheries. Their numbers were around five thousand until the mid-15th century, and their numbers were rised to eight thousand after the Conquest of Istanbul in 1453. During their peak, their numbers never exceeded 12.000, but began to rise after Suleiman I's death. In 1595, their numbers became 45.000, in 1789 110.000 and rose up to 140.000 in 1808.

The famed discipline of the yenicheries began to decline after the corps were opened to all types of men, and they began to run away from the battles during the 17th century. They did not keep up with the modern tactics, began rioting, began looting towns and kept stopping the reforms from being done. This continued until 1826, when the corps were wiped out with cannon fire by Mahmud II, in an event called "Vaka-i Hairiye".

Uniforms: The yenicheries wore a white head gear called "Börk", which was some 45 cm. long. Börk were the same in most of the units; however, a smaller version was also worn by some troops. Their uniforms consisted a blue or dark blue dress and a red or yellow robe called "Dolama". The officers had to replace their uniforms two times a year, while the ordinary soldiers replaced once in a year. Boots were red for High-ranked officers and black for low-ranked officers. The uniform of the Solaks and Peyks (elite of the yenicheries) were different than ordinary yenicheries; they wore a yellow uniform and a bronze helmet. The Bostanjis, guards of the Palace, wore a red head gear called "Battara" and a red robe. While in parades, all the yenicheries placed plums and grotesque feathers on their börks, as mentioned by Western visitors to Istanbul.

Weapons: Yenicheries were divided into many different units: Zirhli Nefer armored soldeirs, Tüfekchi musketeers, Okchu archers, Solaks, Peyks and Bostanji palaca guards. Zirhli nefers wore chain armors supported by small iron pieces and helmets; carried a variety of swords, battle axes, pole arms, hooked spears, maces, lassoes, daggers and a variety of shields ranging from small round shields to rectangular Balkan-style shields. Solaks and Peyks wore helmets but never wore armor; carried halberds called, gaddaras and daggers or composite bows and spears.

Some of the melee weapons used in the Ottoman army were "Pala" curved swords, "Kilich" broad swords, "Yataghan" short swords, "Gaddara" and "Mech" straight swords, lassoes, maces ("Sheshper" and "Kochbashi" are examples), battle axes ("Balta" and "Teber"), "harba" halberds, pole arms, "Mizrak" spears, hooked spears like "Tirpan" and "Zipkin" and "Hancher" daggers.


Tüfekchi musketeers were armed with a variety of muskets, swords, axes and daggers. During the 15th century, arquebuses were more common but their musket varieties increased rapidly during the 16th century. Muskets incluided giant trench muskets, flintlock muskets, matchlock muskets, carbines for cavalries and many more musket types.

The armaments of Okchu archers were similar to those of the musketeers; the only difference was their composite bows, which replaced muskets. The number of archer ortas were rather small, and most of them were turned to musketeers in the 15th century. Bow types incluided short composite bows, "Chagra" crossbows and "Zemberek" heavy crossbows, which shot bolts as thick as a human thumb.



Tactics: The yenicheries were usually placed behind the Yerlikulu provincial infantries and in front of the cannons during battles. While the yerlikulu were withdrawing, zirhli nefer yenicheries usually embroided the enemy heavy cavalries and brought them in to the range of the cannons. After the cannons were fired, musketeers usually opened fired and the shocked enemies would be wiped off by both the zirhli nefers and yerlikulu infantries. The protection of the sultan was responsible to the Solaks, Peyks and Kapikulu cavalries.

During sieges, artilleries, archers and musketeers would try to weaken the enemy and zirhli nefers would assault the fortifications. Missile troops were usually protected by huge wooden siege mantlets.

c) Jebeji Armorer Corps: The Jebeji Corps were founded by Mehmed II before the Siege of Constantinople in 1453. Jebejis were the armorers of the army; they were responsible from the production of the weapons of yenicheries; they stocked those weapons into armories called Jebehane (Jebe meant arms in Ottoman Turkish) and distributed them to the yenicheries in times of war. The jebejis were commanded by a Jebejibashi and were organized in 37 ortas and 59 squadrons. In earlier times, they were recruited from the Ajemi Oghlans.

The jebejis had a uniform, which was consisted of a large turban and a blue coat. They didn't carry arms and didn't fight in battles; altough there were always a couple of jebejis garrisoned in forts. During the late-16th century, their numbers were barely 650; altough their numbers rose up to 5.700 in 1609.

d) Topchu Artillery Corps: The Topchu Corps were founded by Murad II in mid-15th century; altough there was a similar organization which used catapults before. Their main missions were to manifacture artilleries (especially cannons) in Tophanes (Artillery Workshops) and use them in battles. They had a distinguishing uniform, which incluided head gears in Balkan styles as depicted in many Ottoman miniatures. Since they were background units, they didn't carry arms and were commanded by a Topchubashi. The topchus were divided into two units: Dökümjüs (the ones who manifactured the artilleries) and the ones who used them in battles. The recruitment of Topchus were more complex then the other Kapikulu units because the Topchubashi had to ask the Divan-i Hümayun (Ottoman Grand Council) in order to recruit topchus from Ajemi Oghlans. If a topchu served well, he was either promoted or given a Timar (fief) land. The size of the Topchu Corps were around 1.100 topchus at most of the times.

The Ottomans acquired firearms, especially cannons, from Hungary, Venice or Genoa during mid-14th century (when cannons were not used that widely in Europe). According to some sources, the Ottomans used cannons at the Battle of Kosovo in for the first time (tough, just to scare the enemy horses) but the first real useage of cannons were in the early-15th century. During Mehmed II's reign, the Ottoman artillery technologies were greately improved, partly due to the help of the Hungarian engineers like Urban; and bronze cannons were used in many sieges like Istanbul in 1453. The largest of the tophane manifacturies were located in Istanbul, Belgrade, Buda and Temeshvar (Timisoara) and the Ottomans had great uses of cannons in battles like Chaldiran and Monacz. The Ottomans contiuned to manifacture bronze cannons even in the late-17th century, when the European nations had already begun developing light field artilleries, which were much more efeective than the heavy Ottoman cannons. The Ottomans didn't use them until late-18th century, but it was too late to revive the strenght of Ottoman cannon useage.

e) Top Arabaji Gun-Carriage Corps: The Top Arabaji Corps were founded by Murad II just after the foundation of the Topchu Corps, altough these corps were actually a part of the Topchu Corps. The Top Arabaji gun-carriers were responsible from the production of carriage carts and the transport of cannons into the battlefields. The Top Arabajis were commanded by an Arabajibashi but they didn't have a uniform (or they had but we don't know). Recruitments were made from the Ajemi Oghlans and their numbers were between 400 and 700 at all times.

f) Humbaraji Grenadier Corps: Altough it's foundation date is unclear, the Humbaraji Corps must have been founded in late-15th century. Humbarajis were consisted of grenadiers who were used for throwing grenades into the besieged forts; and their another duty was to manifacture Humbaras (grenades) and mortars. The Humbaraji Corps were reformed by Comte De Bonneval, a French officer in Ottoman service, during Mahmud I's reign. The Humbarajis were commanded by a Humbarajibashi and even tough the humbarajis were a part of the Kapikulu Topchu Corps, there were some fief-holding humbarajis in garrisons.

The armaments of humbarajis were consisted of a humbara, a small mortar and a melee weapon (usually a short sword or a dagger). Humbara was a grenade, it's inner parts hallowed out and filled with gunpowder and some flammable stuff. Altough mortars were the earliest firearms to be used in history, they did not reach the Ottoman Empire until Mehmed II used a giant mortar during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453. Another weapon the humbarajis used was the Trench Mortar, a giant weapon similar to both a musket and a mortar. It threw grenades and were used behind the trench in sieges. The uniforms of the humbarajis were similar to those of the topchus, but were replaced in the 18th century with a new uniform, which contained a black cylinder-looking head gear.

g) Laghimji Sappers Corps: The Laghimji Sappers Corps were founded by Mehmed II just before the Siege of Constantinople in 1453; altough these Kapikulu Laghimjis were under the commander of Jebejibashi. The Laghimjis' missions were generally consisted of digging tunnels under the enemy fortifications, placing explosives and demolishing them. While the army was marching, they also had to construct bridges on the route of the army. They didn't have a distinctive army; or they had but no example survives today.

KAPIKULU CAVALRIES

The Kapikulu Cavalry Corps were the mounted arm of the Kapikulu Palace Corps. Even tough there was only one type of corps during Murad I's reign, the Silahdars; new corps were added during Mehmed II's reign like the Sipahis, Right Ulufejis, Left Ulufejis, Right Garibs and Left Garibs. The Kapikulu Cavalries were either selected from the students of the Enderun Palace School or from promoted janissaries. They always got higher salaries, as well as higher status from the Kapikulu infantries These cavalries were also called as People of the Six Units, because there were six Kapikulu cavalry corps. The cavalry officers were composed of Aghas of Bölüks (Divisions), Beghs of Kethüda, Pirs of Kethüda, Katips, Kalfas, Bashchavushes and Chavushes. The unfiorms of the Kapikulu cavalries were very similar to the janissaries; and their armaments were usually composed of a pala, a lance or a gaddara.

a) Sipahi Corps: The Sipahi Corps, founded by Mehmed II, were the most crowded corps of the Kapikulu cavalries. Due to the color of their banners, they were also called as "Kirmizi Bayrak", meaning Red Banners. In peace time, their duty was collecting taxes; but in campaigns, they were ordered to guard the constructions of small man-made hills called "Ordu/Sanjak Tepesi" (which were used for signalling) and trenchs in sieges. During battles, however, they were usually positioned on the right side of the sultan. The Sipahis were organised in units of 300 bölüks, each composed of 20 or 30 cavalries. During the 16th century, there were no more than 2.200 sipahis; yet their numbers rose up to 7.000 at the end of the century, and became 8.000 in the early-17th century.

b) Silahdar Corps: Called "Sari Bayrak"-"Yellow Banner", the Silahdar Corps were the oldest of the Kapikulu Cavalries. During campaigns, they used to collect the background service units like müsellems and yörüks. In battles, they were positioned on the left side of the sultan and were ordered to protect the Imperial tent of the sultan. The personal bodyguards, who always followed the sultan whereever he went, were selected from the Silahdars. The Silahdar Corps were divided into 250 bölüks; and their numbers were 2.200 in the 16th century. Just like the other Kapikulu troops, their numbers rose also thereafter: 5.000 in the late-16th century and 7.500 in the early-17th century.

A Silahdar Agha, personal guard of the sultan

c) Right and Left Ulufeji Corps: Also called as Orta (Medium) Bölüks, these Ulufeji cavalries were used to protect the treasuries of the army (ulufe was the salary paid to the Kapikulu troops; the ulufejis got their name from there). The Right ulufejis were called as "Yeshil Bayrak" (Green Banner) and the colors of the banners of the Left Ulufejis were composed of white and yellow. These corps were consisted of 120 Right and 100 Left bölüks; and their numbers were between 800 and 3.500 throughout Ottoman history.

d) Right and Left Garib Corps: Also called as Ashaghi (Lower) Bölüks, the Garib corps were the smallest of the Kapikulu cavalries. The garibs were used in the carriage of the army's treasures and goods; and in battles, they were responsible from the protection of the Sanjak-i Sherif (Prophet's Banner) and other standarts/banners. The garibs were organized in 200 bölüks, each composed of 100 men; and their numbers were between 800 and 1.900.

ESHKINJI PROVINCIAL TROOPS

All the non-Kapikulu units of the Ottoman army were called as Eshkinji, who were mostly provincial troops who were summoned in times of war (Eshkinji meant "Soldier who joined the campaigns"). The Eshkinjis always formed the majority of the army, and were recruited from the provinces outside of the capital.

TOPRAKLI CAVALRIES (SIPAHIS) The Toprakli Cavalries (also called as Sipahi; don't confuse them with the Kapikulu Sipahis) formed the majority of both the Ottoman army and the Eshkinjis. These toprakli cavalries were composed of two types of soldiers: timar (fief) holding Timarli Sipahi heavy cavalries and Jebelü light cavalries. In battles, they used to charge at the weakened enemy ranks and break the enemy defences; this charge was usually succesful, and most of the Ottoman's foes couldn't expel such a charge. The toprakli cavalries were first introduced durind Murad I's reign, who was famous from his reforms in the army. For many centuries (14th-17th), they formed the backbone of the ermy and were by far the strongest among the other units (partly due to their numerical superiority). In the late-17th century, however, they lost their importance, became obsolete and were switched to background service troops (just like the müsellems and yayas). After the Tanzimat Reforms in 1839, they were abolished and replaced by Redif Divisions, who served on the countryside.



a) Timarli Sipahis: Timarli Sipahis were the experienced soldiers, who were awarded by a piece of land for their contributions in battles or sieges. After they got the land, they were ordered to train Jebelü light cavalries according to their incomes from that land. At times of war, they had to join the army with their jebelüs; and at times of peace, they were responsible from the protection of their district. This way of recruitment was called as Timar System, which was similar to the Sui Chinese Fu and Seljuk Iqta Systems. The timarli sipahis can be considered as the equivalent of a Medieval European knight, and jebelüs as their men-at-arms.

Timarli sipahis never got monthly payments like the Kapikulu troops had; and instead, they supplied themselves with their incomes from their timar lands. If a timarli sipahi committed a crime, his punishment changed according to the level of that crime. Taking the timar land from it's owner was the worst punishment and was usually implied on the ones who didn't join the campaigns without any reason.

Uniforms and Armaments: Timarli sipahis didn't have a uniform, but in battles, they wore chain mail and iron helmets. Usually, cavalry armor was identical from the infantry armor, so a timarli sipahi was easily identified. Their weapons incluided a sabre, a lance, a mace/lassoe, a dagger and sometimes a small round shield and a composite bow. After the 16th century, they also began carrying a pair or two pairs of pistols.

b) Jebelüs: Jebelüs were the light cavalries trained and comanded by timarli sipahis. Altough they were mostly recruited from peasants, they were strictly trained and were experts of sword wielding and horseback riding. They usually didn't wear armor, but wore helmets and usually carried round shields. Their weapons were consisted of classical Ottoman cavalry weapons: a sabre, a lance, a dagger, a composite bow and sometimes a mace. Some of them began carrying pistols and carbines after the 16th century. The numbers of toprakli cavalries are not clear, but they were aprox. more than 100.000 during the mid and late-16th century.

SERHADKULU FRONTIER CAVALRIES

The Serhadkulu frontier cavalries were one of the best units of the Ottoman army. They lived on the frontiers and borders, and organized raids on enemy lands each spring. Even if the two countries were at peace, the serhadkulu always raided neighboring territories, and these raids were not considered as casus belli. In each raid, they damaged towns and villages, looted treasuries and returned to their HQs with their captives and goods without being caught by the enemy. Speed was one of the main factors of their successes; they appeared from nowhere, hit with great strength and ran away very quickly, befor the enemy could realise what was going on. In battles, they helped the toprakli cavalries and usually attacked the enemy missile troops from behind. During campaigns, they moved in front of the army, scouted the area and destroyer the obstacles that might have slowed the advarce of the army. The Akinjis, largest unit of the serhadkulu, also had a complex intelligience service which was centered in Venice. Each 50 or 60 of the serhadkulu cavalries formed a unit called Bayrak, and several bayraks were given under the command of an officer called Delibashi. The highest-ranked serhadkulu officers were called as Alaybeghi or Sercheshme.

a) Akinjis: The largest unit of serhadkulu cavalries, akinjis were the most famous of them. With the other serhadkulus,. they lived near the border and went on to raid each spring. Only a son of an old akinji had the right to become a new akinji, and only Muslim Turks were allowed to join their ranks. Akinjis were also the oldest type of soldiers in the Ottoman army, and they kept their importance until 1595, when all the akinjis were destroyed by Wallachian cannon fire over while they were on a bridge on the River Danube. The Akinji Corps couldn't recover after this tradgic event, and they were replaced by the Crimean Tatars in the 17th century. Akinjis numbers didn't exceed 15.000 at most of the times.

Akinjis didn't have a uniform, nor wore any armor to keep their flexibility and manouverability. Their weaopns incluided a sabre, a lance, a dagger, a composite bow and at least a pair of pistols. As I wrote above, the akinjis also had an iltelligence service centered at Venice.

b) Delils: Delils were the elite serhadkulus selected from the best of the akinjis. Even tough their real name, Delil, meant somethihg similar to Pathfinder or Scout, they were called as Deli ("Mad") by the ordinar people, because of their frightening looks and courages. Delils were experts in sword using, javelin throwing and horseback riding; and it is said that each Delil had to face at least a hundred enemy soldiers in battles. Their most important duties were to distract the attentions of the enemy and cause them to lose time. With their frightening looks, they also caused the enemy morale to go down, and caused havoc in enemy lines.

Even tough the delils din't have a uniform, they were easily identified from their weird and frightening clothes, such as bear pelts, and some of them even stapped small knives to their bodies. They usually carried a sabre, a lance, a pair of pistols and sometimes some kinds of polearms.

c) Gönüllü Volunteers: Gönüllüs were volunteer light cavalries who were enlisted to the army in times of war. They usually served in their local towns or forts, and were a part of the garrison units. They didn't have a uniform, and their armanents were made up of simple weapons like sabres, shields, lances and bows.

d) Beslis: Besli cavalries were recruited from families living on the frontier, and only one besli was recruited from five families. Their missions were to protect the frontier forts and scouting the countryside for enemy movements. Their armaments were similar to those of the gönüllüs.

YERLIKULU PROVINCIAL INFANTRIES

Yerlikulu infantries formed the bulk of the infantry forces in the Ottoman army. Since they were collected from the villages and towns which were located on the main route of the army, they were called as Yerli Kulu, meaning something like Provincial Soldier. When the war was over, they returned to their daily life but sometimes, they were exempt from taxes. All the infantries recruited in times of war (this incluided both yerlikulus and auxiliaries) were called as Derbentchi, which meant Frontiersman.

a) Azebs: Azebs, also called as Azabs, were founded during Murad I's reign during the mid-14th century. In earlier times, they were selected from single Turkish males of Asia Minor; but after the 16th century, the males living on the borders were also enlisted as Azabs. The Azabs had two types: Fort Azabs and Naval Azabs. The Fort Azabs were living in the forts located near the border, and were responsible from the protection of their local forts. Naval Azabs are a part of the Navy, so I'll not explain them in this term work.

In battles, the Azabs were positioned in front of the yenicheris, and were the first to face the charge of the enemy. After slowing down the enemy advance and causing casualties among them, they usually parted in to two parts and thus, allowed the yenicheris to advance. And, after the enemy was shocked with both cannon and musket fire, the azabs and yenicheries were ordered to close the gaps around the enmy, and the enemy was destroyed in a short time. According to some sources, the Azabs also had two more auxiliary types of units called Janbazan and Divanegan, but the infos about their uniforms and armaments are not very clear.

The Azabs were no more than 30.000 during the 16th century; and were organized in ortas, just like the yenicheris. The Azabs were under the command of two ofiicers called Azabagahasi and Azab Katibi; and the ortas were commanded by Odabashis and Bayraktas.

Uniforms and Armaments: From 14th up to the 16the century, the Azabs were in the form of light archers, who didn't nave a uniform nor wore armor. Their weapons were consisted of shields, yataghans, javelins, composite bows and chagra crossbows. In the 16th century, they were transformed into plain infantries; and these new azebs carried weapons like yataghans, kilichs, "shashka" Caucasian short swords, battle axes, daggers, hooked spears, various pole arms, muskets and shields. Their uniforms were composed of a green robe and a turban.

b) Sekbans: Sekbans, the humblest and weakest units in the Ottoman army, were recruited from the peasants living near the border. Their main duties were resisting the charge of the enemy in battles and breaking the enemy resistance in both battles and sieges. They were founded in the late-14tn century, and were replaced by Tüfekchi muskteers in the 17th century. Sarijas, a sub-unit of the Sekbans, were still used, and served as sharp-shooter musketeers.

Uniforms and Armaments: Since they were humble peasants, they didn't have a uniform, and carried weapons like javelins, yataghans, bows, spears, axes and sometimes muskets.

c) Tüfekchi Musketeers: When the Ottomans began struggling with better armed and advanced foes like the Austrians, they decided to form a new type of unit consisted of musketeers. Therefore, this new unit, called Tüfekchis (don't confuse them with the Tüfekchi yenicheries), was founded in the late-16th century, and replaced the obsolete sekbans after a short time. From there on, they became one of the most important units in the Ottoman armies, and played an important role in the battles throughout 17th-18th centuries.

Uniforms and Armaments: The Tüfekchis were not irregular soldiers like the other yerlikulu infantries; and had a uniform consisted of a short red jacket and a tall red head gear. As armaments, they carried fuse/flintlock/matchlock muskets, pistols and melee weapons like yataghans.

d) Levends: These Levends (don't confuse them with 14th-16th century Levend marines) were another unit formed in the late-16th century to supply the army with musketeers. They were usually recruited from the mercenary bandits of Asia Minor.

Uniforms and Armaments: The armaments of levends were very similar to those of the tüfekchis, altough they also carried a type of spear called tirpan or a battle axe. Their uniforms were similar to the Algerian troops, and wore a hat common to the Balkans (these hats were also worn by topchus and humbarajis).

e) Ijareli Mercenary Artillerymen: Ijarelis were the mercenary artillerymen who served on the frontier forts and they were usually recruited from both the Muslim and Christian peasants. Since they were artillerymen and were only recruited in times of war, they didn't have a uniform, nor carried arms. They were commanded by officers called Topi or Topchu Aghasi.

f) Laghimji Sappers: Besides the Kapikulu Laghimjis, there were also some laghimjis who served as yerlikulu infantries. They were recruited from the volunteer Christians, and were commanded by an officer called Laghimjibashi. Their missions were the same with the Kapikulu laghimjis; and didn't have a uniform nor arms.

AUXILIARIES AND BACKGROUND-SERVICE UNITS

Besides all the other units that we decsribed, there were also some auxiliaries, background-service units and troops from the dependencies like Egypt and Crimea that served in the Ottoman army.

a) Egyptian Mamluks: Even tough conquered by the Ottomans in 1517, Egypt kept it's unique military organization until the early-19th century. The most important of them, the Mamluk cavalries, were slave children from the Caucasus that were strictly trained. They continued to serve the Ottoman Empire even after Egypt fell to the Ottomans, and kept their autonomous status until being wiped out by Mehmed Ali Pasha in the 1830s. Their main missions were to protect the Egyptian cities, patrol the route of the Pilgrimage and guard the pilgrims.

An 18th Century Mamluk

Uniforms and Armaments: Unlike the heavy mamluks of the 13th century, the Ottoman-Era mamluks were primarily light cavalries, who wore their traditional dresses and carried weapons like sabres, lances, pistols, carbines and daggers. They usually didn't wear armor either.

b) Algerian Units: Algeria was an autonomous province, located on the Western edge of the Ottoman Empire. Altough being an Ottoman province, Algeria had it's own unique military organization, which was different and simpler then the complex Ottoman army. The Algerian Infantries were consisted of two units: Naval soldiers called Ta'ifat Al Ru'sa and Yenicheries (don't confuse them with the Kapikulu yenicheries). In fact, there were no major differences between these two types of Algerian infantries, and there was only a single type of Algerian cavalries, who were mainly light cavalries. Most of the Algerian troops were recruited from the Anatolian Turks; altough there were also plentiful of Arabs and Berbers enlisted in the Navy.

Uniforms and Armaments: The Algerian infantries' uniforms were similar to those of the Yerlikulu Levends explained above, and wore a Balkan-styled hat and a red robe. Their armaments were composed of a curwed sword, a dagger, a tirpan and usually a musket. The cavalries wore their traditional dresses, and carried a shield, a sabre, a lance, a dagger, a bow and a pair of pistols.

c) Crimean Tatars: The Crimean Khanate became an Ottoman vassal during Mehmed II's reign, and began serving the Ottomans thereafter, until being subjugated by the Russians. When a campaign was launched, the Crimean Khan"s forces had to join the army, and usually helped the Ottoman akinjis in both scouting and raiding. In battles, they also joined the akinjis and attacked the enemy from behind. During peace time, they raided the Polish, Ukranian and Russian territories; and tried to stop the advances of both the Poles, Russians and Cossacks. After the Akinji Corps were destroyed, the Crimean Tatars replaced them and continued to serve the Ottomans.

Uniforms and Armaments: The Crimean Tatars usually fought as light cavalries; and wore flexible armor like chain mail or leather armor that enabled them to move faster and manouver easier. They didn't have a uniform and wore their traditional dresses at most of the times. They carried a sabre, a lance, a dagger, a mace, a lassoe, a composite bow and sometimes a pair of pistols and a carbine.

d) Yayas and Müsellems: Even tough they served as normal units during Orkhan I's reign, they were switched to background-service units after new units like yenicheries, azabs and sipahis were founded. The main objectives of the yayas and müsellems were cleaning the main route odf the army during campaigns and constructing/repairing bridges. The cavalry müsellems also became dismounted after the 14th century, and they were usually recruited from the Christians. The müsellems serving in Asia Minor were recruited from the nomadic Turkoman tribesmen, who were called as Yörüks. The yayas and müsellems were excempt from taxes; and didn't have a uniform nor carried arms.

e) Voynuks: Voynuks were Christian auxiliaries recruited from Bulgarians, Wallachians and Serbians. Most of the voynuks were heavy cavalries; though there were also some infantries. The heavy cavalry voynuks were called as Lagator, and were commanded by a Voynuk Beghi. In peace time, they had to guard the horse flocks and establish security on the countryside.

Uniforms and Armaments: The Voynuks usually wore their traditional Balkan uniforms and various armor types, incluiding chain mail and plate armor. Their weapons, usually consisted of a variety of swords, lances, battle axes and ploe arms, differed from region to region.

f) Martolos Greek Auxiliaries: Martolos were actually the irregular Greek light infantries that served the Byzantine Empire at it's last decades. The Ottomans later re-shaped the Martolos in the 15th century, and began using them against the mountain bandits called Klefts. Most of the martolos were Greek in origin, and they were garrisoned in forts located in Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Hungary in the 16th century. They contiuned to serve for a long time; probably up to the late-18th century.

Uniforms and Armaments: We don't know much about the early times of the martolos; but according to some sources, they were armed with muskets, pistols, short swords and daggers in the 18th century.

g) Others: Securities of the far-away provinces were established by local troops in the Ottoman Empire. I've already explained some of them above, but some of them remain. These local units incluided units from Bosnia, Syria and Egypt; whose military organizations were slightly different than that of the Classical Ottoman Military.

In Bosnia, there were two types of local units: Sharp-shooter Panduks (their Croatian version, the Pandurs, later served in the Austrian armies) and musketeer Eflaks (the Ottomans also called Wallachia as Eflak). Syrian units were composed of Sekbans (who were formed from the Eastern Anatolian Turks), Turkish Levends, Magharibas (Algerian Arabs rezponsible from the protection of the Pilgrims), Tüfekchis recruited from Elite Kurdish musketeers, Ashirs (Syrian local militia) and Bedouins. The Garnison of Cairo incluided units like yenicheries, azabs, sarijas, tüfekchis, yörüks, müteferrikas (simila to solaks), gönüllüs and irregular militia like the Maghribis.

h) Saka Water Carriers: Even tough they were a part of the Kapikulu, I put them in this directory since they were background-service units. The Sakas were supplied the army with water, and treated the wounded soldiers. The Sakas were commanded by Sakabashi, and didn't have any other officers. The Sakas had their own uniform, altough it looked similar to the uniforms of a Sekbanbashi, a high-ranked ofiicer. Their headgears were similar to those of the other yenicheri officers.

CAMPAIGN ORGANIZATIONS IN THE OTTOMAN ARMY

Before a campaign was launched, calculations and plans were made, money from the Imperial treasury was saved, governers were ordered to recruit soldiers, timarli sipahis were called to service and the news of the campaign was delivered to the vassal states. It costed a lot to organize a campaigh with a large army like the Ottomans had, and a great part of the outcomes were paid from the Imperial treasury. Even tough the provincial troopz supplied themselves, the cost of the Kapikulus were very high.

After the preparitions were completed during winter, the commander (usually the sultan or the Grand Vizier) left Istanbul with his Kapikulu troops and the Anatolian units. If the campaign was towards Europe, then the Anatolian troops were taken first and the Rumelian troops joined the army on the way. But if the campaign was towards East, the Rumelian troops gathered at Istanbul and the Anatolian troops joined on the way. The Akinjis, Delils and Crimean Tatars always went in front of the army and scouted the region. They also cleaned the area from obstecles and enemy soldiers, if there were any. Tha yayas, müsellems and laghimjis also cleaned the main route and repaired the bridges and forts on the way (The entire fortress of Kars was repaired during one of Suleiman I's campaigns towards the Safavids). If any soldier damaged/pillaged goods belonging to the locals, then he was punished very strictly (usually abolishment from the army or execution) and the indemnities were paid from the Imperial treasury. But, there are also some incidents in which the commander of the army allowed looting and pillaging on the way, such as the Siege of Vienna in 1683 or Mehmed II's Belgrade Campaign. During a campaign, the soldiers marched on the friendly territories freely, but when the enemy territories were entered, the battle formations were taken.

The army looked magnificiant during the campaigns and this magnificiance usually demolorised the enemy soldiers and commanders (the Battle of Chaldiran fought with Shah Ismail in 1515 during Selim I the Grim's reign is an example). The Mehterhane also played battle musics and military marches throughout the battles, which was demolorising factor for the enemy. Altough the army looked magnificiant, it was also very quick and quite on the way; there are many incidents (such as Bayezid I the Thunderbolt reaching the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 and Selim's army crossing the Sinai in a very short time). The main strategis of the Ottoman commanders were moving the army as fast as possible and destroying the enemy in the place they caught them.

TACTICS AND STRATEGIES IN THE OTTOMAN ARMY

Throughout their history, the Ottomans fought many battles and won a large amount of victories. Their superior tactics and the better technologies they had were one of the main factors that played important roles in their victories. Because the Ottomans were a Turkish empire from the beginning, they usually implied the "Turanid" Tactics, which were composed of surprise moves and the destruction of enemy, in battles. Altough the Ottoman military organization had important differences from the other Turkic empires such as the Gokturk or the Seljuks; the Ottomans re-shaped the Turanid tactics and used them in the best way which was suitible for them.

Before the Ottomans fought a battle, they sent the akinjis to damage the enemies' logistic centers, slow them down, inflict casualties and demolorise them. The damaged enemy army then had to face the main Ottoman army and they usually had a hard time dealing with the Ottomans. Even tough the Safavids implied the same tactic on the Ottomans, the Ottomans were able to defeat them at Chaldiran due to their technological superiorities.

The Ottomans positioned their units differently in each battle; but the most common positioning was like this:

The army was divided into three main parts. The center part was commanded by the sultan or the Grand Vizier; whoever was the commander of the army. The left and right wings' commanding posts were given to either the princes at the earlier times and later the Beylerbeyi grand governors. The azabs were placed on the front rows, the sekbans and other yerlikulus were positioned behind them, and the zirhli nefer yenicheris were positioned behind the yerlikulus. The artilleries were placed behind the zirhli nefers, and the missile troops were positioned behind the artilleries. The Kapikulu cavalries encircled the sultan, and the toprakli cavalries were placed on the wings. The akinjis and Tatars were placed behind the enemy, so that they could attack the enemy's missile troops.

The battles would usually begin with the charge of the enemy heavy cavalries. They would dive into the azab lines, who would separate into two parts after some resistance, and the sekbans would imply the same tactic. Then, the heavy cavalries would charge to the zirhli nefers, who would put up a strong defence and then separate into two parts, just like the yerlikulus. The enemy would now face the Ottoman artillery lines, who would open fire and inflict heavy damages on them. The yenicheri tüfekchis would then fire salvoes of musket shots, and the shocked enemy would then try to flee. However, the azabs, sekbans and zirhli nefers would trap the flee enemies, and the poor heavy cavalries would be destroyed completely. It would then be the turn of the Ottoman toprakli cavalries to charge. The enemy infantries, weakened by Ottoman cannon fire, would try to resist the Ottoman topraklis but soon their lines would break. The hiding akinjis and Tatars would then attack the enemy missile troops and artilleries from behind, and the enemy army would collapse into a full rout. The fleeing and demolorised enemy soldiers would then be destroyed by the Ottoman cavalries.

This tactic was implied at some of the great battles like Nicopolis (1396), Varna (1444), Chaldiran (1515) and Mohacz (1526). Sometimes, the Ottomans used the tactical mistakes of their enemies to gain superiority at the battlefield like at Nicopolis and Ridaniyah (for example, at Nicopolis, the French knights fought dismounted, and were soon destroyed by azabs and yenicheries). And sometimes, the Ottomans won the battle at the last moment with an unexpected event, just before they were finally defeated; like at Varna and Hachova. But for short, the main Ottoman battle tactic was to eliminate the enemy heavy cavalries who possesed a great danger, and then to launch a final assault to break the enemies' resistance. With these superior tactics and better technologies, the Ottomans were victorious at most of the battles throughout 14th-16th centuries.



REFERENCES:

Anonymous, The Ottoman Empire At It's 700th Foundation Anniversary, Military History and Strategy Department Publications, Turkish Association of History Press, Ankara, 1999.

A. Basaran, A. Sert, L. Ilgün, Ottoman History For High Schools, Ministry of Education Publications, Istanbul, 2001.

H. Kece, Atlas Magazine, Issue: 75, June 1999.

A. Koymen, M. Oz, M. Ozgedik, S. Akgul, M. Anahtarcioglu, History II, Ülke Publications, Istanbul, 2000.

D. Nicolle, Constantinople 1453, The End of Byzantium, Osprey Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 2000.

D. Nicolle, The Janissaries, Reed International Books Ltd., 1997.

E. Richard, Turkish Miniatures From The 13th To The 18th Century, Fontana Unesco Art Books, Italy, 1965.

C. Taskiran, The Ottoman Army At The Golden Age, Military Chairmanship.

Republic of Turkey Ministry of Defense, Otoman Military Organisation, Ankara, 1999.
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[Dobrusky]

Dobar ti onaj vic. Ne da smo se ismijali.

No mi nije jasno, sto ce ti ovoliki post i to na jeziku kojeg ne razumem. Budi ljubazan pa mi prevedi ponesto u slobodnom prevodu.

'Fala.

[Cakir]

Za Berankrsh: Posto vidim da znas Engleski, nadam se da ti ni arapski nije toliko los, procitaj ovo i bice ti neke stvari jasnije.

أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة
الأصدقاء الآ .
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و قم بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو ممي .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .
أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة الأصدقاء الآمنة
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو مميّز .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .

[ZAVRZAN]

U nastojanju da provjerim, tako mi blisku, tezu o postojanju malog plemena Bosnjaci odlucih se da ih trazim u najnepristupacnijim dijelova napacene nam majke Otadzbine
I trud urodi plodom. Nadjoh ih u Bihoru i Rozaju. Uvjerite se i sami. Sve Bosnjak do Bosnjaka. Ima primjera koliko hocete, ali i ovo je dovoljno.
Adrovici
- u Bihoru, od Djuraskovica (krsna slava Sv. Nikola) u Ceklinu;
- u Vrbici (100 kuca,1965 god), Boru i Petnjici u Bihoru, i u Lecanima u Koritima, \"njihov rodonacelnik Andro dosao je iz Ceklina pre 300 godina, kad i njegovi pravoslavni rodjaci u Luscu kod Berana (Tomasevici, Popovici, Pajkovici, Vekovici, Radicevici i dr.). Kazu da su od Djuraskovica. Adrovici su bili ugledno i borbeno bratstvo. Njemu je pripadao gornjobihorski barjak. Iako su razgranati, Adrovici se ni sada ne zene izmedju sebe\";
Adzamanici, u Rozaju, Sjenici i Niksicu, poreklom iz sela Momce u Kucima, od bratstva Jovovica koje slavi Sv. Nikolu;
Babicici u Tucanju u Bihoru, poreklom iz Njegusa, rod im Obradovici u Gornjim Selima kod Ivangrada i Zekici kod Rozaja. Po predanju\" dosla baba sa dvoje djece (Juko i Selim) koja su primila islam pre 6 pojaseva (generacija)\". Ima ih u Ljesnici, Krnjoj Jeli i Trijebinjama kod Sjenice;
Balijici, u Zmijanjcu u Bihoru, \"kazu da je njihov predak kao pravoslavni Srbin pobegao od krvi iz Saronja u Pesteru. Jedan brat je primio islam a drugi, Rade, otisao u Crvsko. Od njega su Radovici\";
Balotici, po kojima je nazvano selo u Rozaju su jedan od najstarijih rodova Kuca cija je matica Kosor, gdje je sacuvana uspomena na njih. Slavili su Sv. Nikolu. Njihovi srodnici su Camici u rozajskom selu Paucina. Rodovi Balotica su: Dautovici, Feizovici, Mujovici, Mehovici, Kujovici i Redzepagici. Locirani su u; rozajskim selima Njegusi, Grahovo, Bac, zaseoku Vuca, a njihovih srodnika u Brnjici i Jasenoviku kod Novog Pazara;
Begovici u Rasovu, u Bihoru, poticu od vlastelina Jovana koji je primio islam dobivsi zvanje Jovan-beg i zadrzao posede. Od njih su Dizdarevici u Godovu. Rod su im pravoslavni Srbi Jacimovici u Kostenici koji slave Sv. Stefana;
Bektesi, u Gusinju, od Banjkana iz Zatrijepca u Kucima ciji je rodonacelnik Milos tu naseljen iz Crnojevica Rijeke krajem 15 veka. Staro krsno ime Sv. Nikola;
Brdjani, u Ibarcu u Rozaju, dosli iz Bjelopavlica pocetkom 19 veka i ovde primili islam;
Velovici, u Kosticu u Bihoru, rod sa pravoslavnim Bozovicima u Zagradu (krsno ime Nikoljdan), starinom iz Kuca - neki Vaso pobjegao u Loznu kod Corovica koji su ga preveli na islam i dali mu zemlju u Kosticima;
Visnjici, u Crnisu u Bihoru, poticu od udovice Visnje. Rod sa Durovicima u Godusi i Mulicima u Godusi;
Ganici u Rozaju i Bijelom Polju poticu od roda Milica, bratstva Djurdjevica u Kucima. Staro krsno ime Sv. Dimitrije;
Goljo, u Dobrodolu u Bihorskoj planini, poislamljeni pravoslavni starosedeoci;
Guberinici, na Trubini u Bihoru, doseljeni iz Vasojevica. rodjaci su im prvoslavni Guberinici na Polici, Budimlji i oko Andrijevice;
Dazdarevici, najstarije bratstvo u Rozaju, dosli iz Rasova u Bihoru, poreklo vode od stare srpske vlastele. U Rasovu su im rodjaci Begovici. Bili dizdari grada Rozaja, odakle su ih proterali Klimenti Nokici. Ima ih u stavnickim selima Godovo i Sas. Od ovih u Godovu ima ih odseljenih u Tutin;
Dakovici, naseljeni u drugoj polovini 18 veka u Niksic, poticu iz sela Bezihova u Kucima. Stro prezime Nilejici. Staro krsno ime Sv. Nikola. Ima ih i pravoslavnih, u Bezihovu (1907), Podgorici i Gusinju;
Drpljani, u Obrovu u Bihoru, dosli iz Drpa kod Kolasina posle 1878 god;
Dudici, u Bijohanu (zaselak Popa) u Stavici, poreklom su Bratonozici. Njihov predak, Barjaktarevic, doselio se iz Petnjika u rozajsko selo Bogaje, a odatle sidje niz ibar u selo Njeguse, gde primi islam,po cemu predje u stavicko selo Pope;
Durakovici, u Trpezama u Bihoru, iz Bratonozica, poreklom Bukumire;
Ducici, u Rozaju i Plavu, poreklom iz sela Ducica u Kucima, koji izvode lozu od vojvode Gojka Mrnjacevica, brata kralja Vukasina (pog. 1371). Staro krsno ime Sv. Dimitrije.
U Hercegovini je vise bratstava Ducica koji poticu iz sela Ducici;
Erovici (Herovici), u Podinama u Bihoru, rodonacelnik Bulatovic iz Rovaca, doseljen pocetkom 18 veka, primio ovde islam. Rod sa Erovicima u Koritima;
Eci, u Crnisu u Bihoru, smatraju se za najstarije, \"…kazu da su im rodjaci pravoslavni Corovici u Stitarima\";
Zverovici, u Vrsevu u Bihoru, dosli iz Meduna,\"primili su islam posle doseljenja\";
Zuk-Orlici, u Orlju u Ibarskom Kolasinu, tako nazvani po pretku Zuk -Orlu doseljenom pocetkom 19 veka iz okoline Gusinja. Poreklom Kuci;
Idrizovici u Zatonu u Bihoru, poreklom Ceklinjani;
Isakovici, u Pasica Polju u Bihoru, dosli iz Foce posle 1878 godine;
Kalaci, u Kalacima (Zasmrdje) u Rozaju, pravoslavni predak dosao pocetkom 19 veka iz Kuca, bratstvo Milacica i primio islam. Od njegova tri sina (Mustafe, Ahmeta i Sulejmana) bilo je sredinom 20 veka oko 80 kuca Kalaca koje se nisu orodjavale;
Kaljici, u Kolasinu i Podgori u Polimlju i Potarju, dosli iz Morace. Po zapisu Petra Mrkonjica,\"najpre dosao nekakav Kaljo iz Morace u Kolasin i stao u najam kod Musovica, muhamedanca. Ovde se ozeni i poturci, i od njega se izrodi citavo pleme Kaljica, kojih danas ima vise od 500 pusaka\" (1902). Kaljici se dele na Eldice, Lanice, Zarene, Cikovice, Gezovice, Racice, Kupusare, Ibraimovice i Redzovice;
Karadzici, u Petrinjci u Drobnjaku. Kada se deda Vuka Karadzica odselio u Trsic, Savo Karadzic se odseli preko Koma i predje u islam dobivsi ime Sako, sinu dade ime Alija a unuku Zule. Od njih poticu Sakovici u Seocu i Zulevici u Peovcu. Stara krsna imena Djurdjevdan i Sv. Arandjel;
Kacapori, u Orlju, dosli pocetkom 18 vek iz kacaporskog sela Besnika u Rozaju, gde su bili pravoslavni, starinom su Kuci. Njihov predak Smako je najstariji poznati naseljenik u Orlju;
Kacari u Bukovici u Rozaju i njihova grana Ibrahimovici od roda su Belojica, najstarijeg poznatog stanovnistva Bukovice koji su rodom Balevici u Bratonozicima (krsno ime Nikoljdan). Kacari su primili islam u prvoj polovini 19 veka . Imaju granu u stavickom selu Detanima i Orlju u Ibarskom Kolasinu;
Kijameti, u Godijevu u Bihoru, pooreklom od popa Jeremije. Dva popova sina su otisli sa grupom seljaka da predju na islam kod dzamije u Radulicima jer nisu hteli da se sele. Pop se ovome protivio. Kada je na putu cuo da su se i njegovi sinovi poturcili uzviknuo je: \"Koji me kijamet snadje da se pod starost turcim\". om mjestu je presvisnuo. Njegovi potomci su po tom dogadjaju dobili prezime Kijameti.
Koraci, u Petnjici u Bihoru, rod sa pravoslavnim Koracima u Gornjim Selima (krsno ime Nikoljdan). Njihov ogranak su Palamari;
Kuprejovici, u Sredjanima u Rozaju, potomci Pejovi (Petrovi), koji se pocetkom 19 veka doselio iz Morace. Njegov sin primi islam i dobije ime kurta pa se po Kurti Pejovom prezivaju Kurpejovici. Po Kurtinim sinovima Bektasu, Sinanu i Osmanu suani njihovi rodovi. Njihovi potomci su naseljeni u varosici Rozaju, Novom pazaru (Sinanovici), Streocu u Metohiji i rozajskim selima Seosnici i Susterima. Rodjaci Kurpejovica su Srbi Magdalenici (Bogaje u Rozaju i Tmusic kod Berana);
Kuci, u Rozaju, dosli pocetkom 18 veka. Poticu od tri brata, koji po dolasku predju na islam. Najstariji Ilija, ciji se grob jos pozna u kucanskom groblju, dobije ime Alija, a dva mladja se nazovu Uso(Huso) i Ramo. Od Ilijinih (Alijinih) sinova: Fetaha, Ganije i Becira su rodovi Fetahovici, Ganijici i Beciragici. Ganijici (Ganici) su dali vise uglednika u turskoj upravi (kajmakame Murat-agu i Hamid-bega, ii Hamet-efendiju, poslanika u turskom parlamentu 1910 god, koga su zvali Vidic, \"po majci Vidi, koja je rodom iz Biseva iz porodice pravoslavnih Srba\". Od Ilijinog brata Usa poticu Usovici (Husovici) u rozajskim selima Koljenu i Seosnici (zaselak Bacevac), a od drugog brata Rama - Ramovici u Lucnici, od kojih su Suljovici u Seosnici (uzeli prezime Nurkovica). Od njih su Kuci odseljeni u sela Starcevice i Jezgrovice u Ibarskom Kolasinu, gde se prezivaju Lucicani, po mestu iz koga su potekli, Rizvanovici, mahmutovici i Ibrahimovici. Rizvanovica ima u Popicu, zaseoku Ribarici u Ibarskom Kolasinu, gde su otisli na ujcevinu. Od Ramovog (Ramadanovog) roda su i Colakovici, a od doseljenog Ilijinog sinovca (ili bliznjeg rodjaka), \"koji je s njima dosao iz Brda\", potice bratstvo Kamberagica, ciji su rodovi Kadrovici ( ima ih u Vuci i Malin Dubravi, kao i Crnokrpama) i Hadzijici (hadzici). Od rozajskih Kadrovica ima naseljenih u Tutinu. Rozajskim Kucama (Ganicima) su srodnici Hamzagici u Tutinu;
Latici, u Lagatorima u Bihoru, doseljeni pre 250 godina iz Peleva Brijega u Bratonozicima. Najpre se naselili u Trpezama, gde je ostao njihov rod Uremovici. Rodjaci su im pravoslavni Veljici u Docu i Babinu i Vujovici u Daspicima u Beranu.
Ledinjani, na Ledinama u Fundani, u Kucima. Pocetkom ovog veka ih je jos bilo u Podgorici i Tuzima. Potomci su Cetka Ivanovog koji se pocetkom 17 veka sa bratom Kojom doselio na Ledine. Koja potom ode u Krivi Do i od njega nastanu Ljuljanovici Krivodoljani, a Cetkovi potomci prime islam. Stara slava Sv. Nikola koju Ljuljanovici prisluzuju, uz Sv. Dimitrija prihvacenog od Mrnjacevica. Srodnici Ledinjana su Mustafagici, Prekovici i Curici;
I tako dalje i tako blize. Ista prica i sa Licinama, Luboderima, Lukacevicima (Lukacima), Ljuharovicima, Memovicima, Mehovicima, Micinama, Mrkulicima, Mujanovicima, Mulicima, Muljanima, Muratagicima, Muhovicima, Nurkovicima, da ne nabrajam dalje. Ovo je samo sa jednog lokaliteta a raspolazem sa oko 2500 prezimena.
Memovici
Memovici poticu iz bratstva Ostojica. Do istrage su zivjeli u Crnom Vrhu, u selu Raskoj kod Djurdjevih stupova. Nazvani su "crnovrski Turci" po Crnom Vrhu u Ceklicima. U vrijeme istrage pobjegli su Niksic. (U Bratonozicima i Vasojevicima je sacuvano secanje da su Memovici ziveli u Lutovu, a odatle otisli u Ceklice). Erdeljanovic je zapisao da su Memovici potom " iz Niksica prebegli na zemljiste manastira Decana, na zapadu od Djurdjevih stupova, u danasnjim Vasojevicima," i osnovali tamo selo koje su nazvali Crni Vrh " po mestu odakle su odselili". Ti su ceklicki Memovici, po tvrdjenju Bratonozi ca brojali na 60 porodica. Njih su Vasojevici najpre 1856-8 a drugi put 1875 godine sasvim isterali odatle, a njihovu zemlju zauzeli. Kuda su ti Memovici otisli, ne kaze se".

[Berankrsh69]

Za Berankrsh: Posto vidim da znas Engleski, nadam se da ti ni arapski nije toliko los, procitaj ovo i bice ti neke stvari jasnije.

أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة
الأصدقاء الآ .
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و قم بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو ممي .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .
أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة الأصدقاء الآمنة
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو مميّز .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .

Da znash, da bi volio i Arapski nauchit...cojek je bogat koliko jezika govori ako nijesi znao...no Cakire, bezbeli shta veli ovaj u ovo sharanije?
zna li vi Tarzan arapski?

[Berankrsh69]

Dobar ti onaj vic. Ne da smo se ismijali.

No mi nije jasno, sto ce ti ovoliki post i to na jeziku kojeg ne razumem. Budi ljubazan pa mi prevedi ponesto u slobodnom prevodu.

'Fala.

u prevodu vele da se nej vishe u Dobrushu vrcat
a ni ja u Berane.......

[Berankrsh69]

U nastojanju da provjerim, tako mi blisku, tezu o postojanju malog plemena Bosnjaci odlucih se da ih trazim u najnepristupacnijim dijelova napacene nam majke Otadzbine
I trud urodi plodom. Nadjoh ih u Bihoru i Rozaju. Uvjerite se i sami. Sve Bosnjak do Bosnjaka. Ima primjera koliko hocete, ali i ovo je dovoljno.
Adrovici
- u Bihoru, od Djuraskovica (krsna slava Sv. Nikola) u Ceklinu;
- u Vrbici (100 kuca,1965 god), Boru i Petnjici u Bihoru, i u Lecanima u Koritima, \"njihov rodonacelnik Andro dosao je iz Ceklina pre 300 godina, kad i njegovi pravoslavni rodjaci u Luscu kod Berana (Tomasevici, Popovici, Pajkovici, Vekovici, Radicevici i dr.). Kazu da su od Djuraskovica. Adrovici su bili ugledno i borbeno bratstvo. Njemu je pripadao gornjobihorski barjak. Iako su razgranati, Adrovici se ni sada ne zene izmedju sebe\";
Adzamanici, u Rozaju, Sjenici i Niksicu, poreklom iz sela Momce u Kucima, od bratstva Jovovica koje slavi Sv. Nikolu;
Babicici u Tucanju u Bihoru, poreklom iz Njegusa, rod im Obradovici u Gornjim Selima kod Ivangrada i Zekici kod Rozaja. Po predanju\" dosla baba sa dvoje djece (Juko i Selim) koja su primila islam pre 6 pojaseva (generacija)\". Ima ih u Ljesnici, Krnjoj Jeli i Trijebinjama kod Sjenice;
Balijici, u Zmijanjcu u Bihoru, \"kazu da je njihov predak kao pravoslavni Srbin pobegao od krvi iz Saronja u Pesteru. Jedan brat je primio islam a drugi, Rade, otisao u Crvsko. Od njega su Radovici\";
Balotici, po kojima je nazvano selo u Rozaju su jedan od najstarijih rodova Kuca cija je matica Kosor, gdje je sacuvana uspomena na njih. Slavili su Sv. Nikolu. Njihovi srodnici su Camici u rozajskom selu Paucina. Rodovi Balotica su: Dautovici, Feizovici, Mujovici, Mehovici, Kujovici i Redzepagici. Locirani su u; rozajskim selima Njegusi, Grahovo, Bac, zaseoku Vuca, a njihovih srodnika u Brnjici i Jasenoviku kod Novog Pazara;
Begovici u Rasovu, u Bihoru, poticu od vlastelina Jovana koji je primio islam dobivsi zvanje Jovan-beg i zadrzao posede. Od njih su Dizdarevici u Godovu. Rod su im pravoslavni Srbi Jacimovici u Kostenici koji slave Sv. Stefana;
Bektesi, u Gusinju, od Banjkana iz Zatrijepca u Kucima ciji je rodonacelnik Milos tu naseljen iz Crnojevica Rijeke krajem 15 veka. Staro krsno ime Sv. Nikola;
Brdjani, u Ibarcu u Rozaju, dosli iz Bjelopavlica pocetkom 19 veka i ovde primili islam;
Velovici, u Kosticu u Bihoru, rod sa pravoslavnim Bozovicima u Zagradu (krsno ime Nikoljdan), starinom iz Kuca - neki Vaso pobjegao u Loznu kod Corovica koji su ga preveli na islam i dali mu zemlju u Kosticima;
Visnjici, u Crnisu u Bihoru, poticu od udovice Visnje. Rod sa Durovicima u Godusi i Mulicima u Godusi;
Ganici u Rozaju i Bijelom Polju poticu od roda Milica, bratstva Djurdjevica u Kucima. Staro krsno ime Sv. Dimitrije;
Goljo, u Dobrodolu u Bihorskoj planini, poislamljeni pravoslavni starosedeoci;
Guberinici, na Trubini u Bihoru, doseljeni iz Vasojevica. rodjaci su im prvoslavni Guberinici na Polici, Budimlji i oko Andrijevice;
Dazdarevici, najstarije bratstvo u Rozaju, dosli iz Rasova u Bihoru, poreklo vode od stare srpske vlastele. U Rasovu su im rodjaci Begovici. Bili dizdari grada Rozaja, odakle su ih proterali Klimenti Nokici. Ima ih u stavnickim selima Godovo i Sas. Od ovih u Godovu ima ih odseljenih u Tutin;
Dakovici, naseljeni u drugoj polovini 18 veka u Niksic, poticu iz sela Bezihova u Kucima. Stro prezime Nilejici. Staro krsno ime Sv. Nikola. Ima ih i pravoslavnih, u Bezihovu (1907), Podgorici i Gusinju;
Drpljani, u Obrovu u Bihoru, dosli iz Drpa kod Kolasina posle 1878 god;
Dudici, u Bijohanu (zaselak Popa) u Stavici, poreklom su Bratonozici. Njihov predak, Barjaktarevic, doselio se iz Petnjika u rozajsko selo Bogaje, a odatle sidje niz ibar u selo Njeguse, gde primi islam,po cemu predje u stavicko selo Pope;
Durakovici, u Trpezama u Bihoru, iz Bratonozica, poreklom Bukumire;
Ducici, u Rozaju i Plavu, poreklom iz sela Ducica u Kucima, koji izvode lozu od vojvode Gojka Mrnjacevica, brata kralja Vukasina (pog. 1371). Staro krsno ime Sv. Dimitrije.
U Hercegovini je vise bratstava Ducica koji poticu iz sela Ducici;
Erovici (Herovici), u Podinama u Bihoru, rodonacelnik Bulatovic iz Rovaca, doseljen pocetkom 18 veka, primio ovde islam. Rod sa Erovicima u Koritima;
Eci, u Crnisu u Bihoru, smatraju se za najstarije, \"…kazu da su im rodjaci pravoslavni Corovici u Stitarima\";
Zverovici, u Vrsevu u Bihoru, dosli iz Meduna,\"primili su islam posle doseljenja\";
Zuk-Orlici, u Orlju u Ibarskom Kolasinu, tako nazvani po pretku Zuk -Orlu doseljenom pocetkom 19 veka iz okoline Gusinja. Poreklom Kuci;
Idrizovici u Zatonu u Bihoru, poreklom Ceklinjani;
Isakovici, u Pasica Polju u Bihoru, dosli iz Foce posle 1878 godine;
Kalaci, u Kalacima (Zasmrdje) u Rozaju, pravoslavni predak dosao pocetkom 19 veka iz Kuca, bratstvo Milacica i primio islam. Od njegova tri sina (Mustafe, Ahmeta i Sulejmana) bilo je sredinom 20 veka oko 80 kuca Kalaca koje se nisu orodjavale;
Kaljici, u Kolasinu i Podgori u Polimlju i Potarju, dosli iz Morace. Po zapisu Petra Mrkonjica,\"najpre dosao nekakav Kaljo iz Morace u Kolasin i stao u najam kod Musovica, muhamedanca. Ovde se ozeni i poturci, i od njega se izrodi citavo pleme Kaljica, kojih danas ima vise od 500 pusaka\" (1902). Kaljici se dele na Eldice, Lanice, Zarene, Cikovice, Gezovice, Racice, Kupusare, Ibraimovice i Redzovice;
Karadzici, u Petrinjci u Drobnjaku. Kada se deda Vuka Karadzica odselio u Trsic, Savo Karadzic se odseli preko Koma i predje u islam dobivsi ime Sako, sinu dade ime Alija a unuku Zule. Od njih poticu Sakovici u Seocu i Zulevici u Peovcu. Stara krsna imena Djurdjevdan i Sv. Arandjel;
Kacapori, u Orlju, dosli pocetkom 18 vek iz kacaporskog sela Besnika u Rozaju, gde su bili pravoslavni, starinom su Kuci. Njihov predak Smako je najstariji poznati naseljenik u Orlju;
Kacari u Bukovici u Rozaju i njihova grana Ibrahimovici od roda su Belojica, najstarijeg poznatog stanovnistva Bukovice koji su rodom Balevici u Bratonozicima (krsno ime Nikoljdan). Kacari su primili islam u prvoj polovini 19 veka . Imaju granu u stavickom selu Detanima i Orlju u Ibarskom Kolasinu;
Kijameti, u Godijevu u Bihoru, pooreklom od popa Jeremije. Dva popova sina su otisli sa grupom seljaka da predju na islam kod dzamije u Radulicima jer nisu hteli da se sele. Pop se ovome protivio. Kada je na putu cuo da su se i njegovi sinovi poturcili uzviknuo je: \"Koji me kijamet snadje da se pod starost turcim\". om mjestu je presvisnuo. Njegovi potomci su po tom dogadjaju dobili prezime Kijameti.
Koraci, u Petnjici u Bihoru, rod sa pravoslavnim Koracima u Gornjim Selima (krsno ime Nikoljdan). Njihov ogranak su Palamari;
Kuprejovici, u Sredjanima u Rozaju, potomci Pejovi (Petrovi), koji se pocetkom 19 veka doselio iz Morace. Njegov sin primi islam i dobije ime kurta pa se po Kurti Pejovom prezivaju Kurpejovici. Po Kurtinim sinovima Bektasu, Sinanu i Osmanu suani njihovi rodovi. Njihovi potomci su naseljeni u varosici Rozaju, Novom pazaru (Sinanovici), Streocu u Metohiji i rozajskim selima Seosnici i Susterima. Rodjaci Kurpejovica su Srbi Magdalenici (Bogaje u Rozaju i Tmusic kod Berana);
Kuci, u Rozaju, dosli pocetkom 18 veka. Poticu od tri brata, koji po dolasku predju na islam. Najstariji Ilija, ciji se grob jos pozna u kucanskom groblju, dobije ime Alija, a dva mladja se nazovu Uso(Huso) i Ramo. Od Ilijinih (Alijinih) sinova: Fetaha, Ganije i Becira su rodovi Fetahovici, Ganijici i Beciragici. Ganijici (Ganici) su dali vise uglednika u turskoj upravi (kajmakame Murat-agu i Hamid-bega, ii Hamet-efendiju, poslanika u turskom parlamentu 1910 god, koga su zvali Vidic, \"po majci Vidi, koja je rodom iz Biseva iz porodice pravoslavnih Srba\". Od Ilijinog brata Usa poticu Usovici (Husovici) u rozajskim selima Koljenu i Seosnici (zaselak Bacevac), a od drugog brata Rama - Ramovici u Lucnici, od kojih su Suljovici u Seosnici (uzeli prezime Nurkovica). Od njih su Kuci odseljeni u sela Starcevice i Jezgrovice u Ibarskom Kolasinu, gde se prezivaju Lucicani, po mestu iz koga su potekli, Rizvanovici, mahmutovici i Ibrahimovici. Rizvanovica ima u Popicu, zaseoku Ribarici u Ibarskom Kolasinu, gde su otisli na ujcevinu. Od Ramovog (Ramadanovog) roda su i Colakovici, a od doseljenog Ilijinog sinovca (ili bliznjeg rodjaka), \"koji je s njima dosao iz Brda\", potice bratstvo Kamberagica, ciji su rodovi Kadrovici ( ima ih u Vuci i Malin Dubravi, kao i Crnokrpama) i Hadzijici (hadzici). Od rozajskih Kadrovica ima naseljenih u Tutinu. Rozajskim Kucama (Ganicima) su srodnici Hamzagici u Tutinu;
Latici, u Lagatorima u Bihoru, doseljeni pre 250 godina iz Peleva Brijega u Bratonozicima. Najpre se naselili u Trpezama, gde je ostao njihov rod Uremovici. Rodjaci su im pravoslavni Veljici u Docu i Babinu i Vujovici u Daspicima u Beranu.
Ledinjani, na Ledinama u Fundani, u Kucima. Pocetkom ovog veka ih je jos bilo u Podgorici i Tuzima. Potomci su Cetka Ivanovog koji se pocetkom 17 veka sa bratom Kojom doselio na Ledine. Koja potom ode u Krivi Do i od njega nastanu Ljuljanovici Krivodoljani, a Cetkovi potomci prime islam. Stara slava Sv. Nikola koju Ljuljanovici prisluzuju, uz Sv. Dimitrija prihvacenog od Mrnjacevica. Srodnici Ledinjana su Mustafagici, Prekovici i Curici;
I tako dalje i tako blize. Ista prica i sa Licinama, Luboderima, Lukacevicima (Lukacima), Ljuharovicima, Memovicima, Mehovicima, Micinama, Mrkulicima, Mujanovicima, Mulicima, Muljanima, Muratagicima, Muhovicima, Nurkovicima, da ne nabrajam dalje. Ovo je samo sa jednog lokaliteta a raspolazem sa oko 2500 prezimena.
Memovici
Memovici poticu iz bratstva Ostojica. Do istrage su zivjeli u Crnom Vrhu, u selu Raskoj kod Djurdjevih stupova. Nazvani su "crnovrski Turci" po Crnom Vrhu u Ceklicima. U vrijeme istrage pobjegli su Niksic. (U Bratonozicima i Vasojevicima je sacuvano secanje da su Memovici ziveli u Lutovu, a odatle otisli u Ceklice). Erdeljanovic je zapisao da su Memovici potom " iz Niksica prebegli na zemljiste manastira Decana, na zapadu od Djurdjevih stupova, u danasnjim Vasojevicima," i osnovali tamo selo koje su nazvali Crni Vrh " po mestu odakle su odselili". Ti su ceklicki Memovici, po tvrdjenju Bratonozi ca brojali na 60 porodica. Njih su Vasojevici najpre 1856-8 a drugi put 1875 godine sasvim isterali odatle, a njihovu zemlju zauzeli. Kuda su ti Memovici otisli, ne kaze se".

Dobrusha, poznajesh li koga sa ovoga spiska? ima li istine odje?ja znam jedno deset porodica u Berane sa ovoga spiska.....

[Berankrsh69]

[quote="Cakir"]Za Berankrsh: Posto vidim da znas Engleski, nadam se da ti ni arapski nije toliko los, procitaj ovo i bice ti neke stvari jasnije.

أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة
الأصدقاء الآ .
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و قم بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو ممي .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .
أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة الأصدقاء الآمنة
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو مميّز .




Idu dva arapa pustinjom i ovaj jedan vidi kamilu i kaze "التعلماتالتعلمات" a ovaj ce njemu na to "التعلت"!!!

[Cakir]

[quote="Berankrsh69"]

Za Berankrsh: Posto vidim da znas Engleski, nadam se da ti ni arapski nije toliko los, procitaj ovo i bice ti neke stvari jasnije.

أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة
الأصدقاء الآ .
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و قم بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو ممي .
. تمتّع بإرسال رسائل قصيرة و سريعة عبر موقعنا , و الدردشة و مشاركة الصّور المحميّة بكلمة السر .
أعثر على توأم روحك , تعرّف على أصدقاء جدد , أو ساعد أصدقائك ليتلاقوا و بتعرّفوا على بعضهم من خلال ميّزة دائرة الأصدقاء الآمنة
إعرف عن المناسبات المحليّة , أحصل على امتيازات قيّمة من خلال مشاريع تجاريّة و أعمال خاصة للأعضاء و بزيارة منطقة نصيب الإلكترونيّة .
إلفت نظر الأشخاص الذين تودّ التعرّف عليهم عندما تصبح عضو مميّز .




Idu dva arapa pustinjom i ovaj jedan vidi kamilu i kaze "التعلماتالتعلمات" a ovaj ce njemu na to "التعلت"!!!

Stara fora...

[-=H2SO4=-]

jel' to odole blago nama?
nekakav arapski xxx
http://arabic.naseeb.com/login.php

[Berankrsh69]

Piše: Sead Fetahagić

Agresija
Ušao sam u prodavnicu u mojoj ulici i zatražio flašu pića. Mladi prodavač mi je rekao da je haram (grijeh) uz ramazan kupovati alkohol. Pogledao sam ga tako da je odmah shvatio šta je rekao. Odakle nekom pravo da uskraćuje meni slobodu da kupujem šta mi je volja i kad mi odgovara? Idućeg dana gazda radnje mi se izvinjavao, kazao mi je da mladić, njegov sestrić, nije mislio ništa ružno.

Ali je ružno da sve više uzima maha da se uspostavljaju standardi ponašanja prema religijskim pravilima i običajima. Potpuno se zanemaruje da ima ljudi drugačijih vjerovanja i ubjeđenja, svi se uniformno moramo postrojiti pod jedan svjetonazor, a mnogo češće pod diktat jednog vjerskog poglavara. Tako je ovih dana jedan od rijetkih koji se javno usprotivio dirigiranju svemu i svačemu reisa Mustafe Cerića bio Srđan Dizdarević, predsjednik Helsinškog komiteta za ljudska prava u BiH. A poznato je da čovjek na čelu Islamske vjerske zajednice sve više ima ambiciju da upravlja svjetovnim životom, da on bude vrhovni poglavar koji će se pitati šta ću ja jesti i piti, kako ću se oblačiti. U polemici sa reisom, Srđan Dizdarević je reagovao veoma tačno i oštro: "Reis Cerić pokušava da staljinističkim metodama ograniči ljudska prava i slobode. On je taj koji ima ambiciju da nam odredi za koga ćemo glasati, šta ćemo jesti i piti, koje ćemo novine čitati i koje televizijske kanale gledati".

Ovih dana su protestovali iz Islamske zajednice što na Federalnoj televiziji nema posebnog programa povodom ramazana. Javio se u ime Federalne televizije njen glasnogovornik Vlastimir Mijović, koji se izvinjavao, dodvoravao, klanjao, kumio i molio da reis Cerić i ostale vjerske glavešine oproste što su pogriješili.

Veliki je strah od džamijskog lobija, jer ako oni nekoga uzmu na zub bolje mu je da se kupi i sakrije pod jorgan. Zato je đavo odnio ideju o sekularnoj državi, kad je još u "Islamskoj deklaraciji" Alija Izetbegović među muslimanskim zemljama Tursku po vrijednosti stavio na posljednje mjesto, jer još od Ataturka sprovodi sekularno državno uređenje. Najbolje je vladati preko vjernika, oni su najbolji podanici.

Dobro je poznato kako se karijeristi petkom na džumi guraju u džamiji. Znam ljude koji petkom u podne sa svog radnog mjesta pređu kilometre da bi se vidjeli kako klanjaju u Ferhadiji, gdje se okupljaju drmatori. Uzalud vjernik da ode u neku malu i bližu džamiju, kad ga tu neće vidjeti oni koji usmjeravaju naše živote. Jedan mi je katolički svećenik na moju primjedbu da su sada pune džamije i crkve rekao: Ništa više vjernika nema nego prije, samo ima mnogo foliranata.

Daje se publicitet nekoj organizaciji "Hadži Mujaga", koja se buni što se u centru Sarajeva uređuje skver Franca Prešerna, jer su na tom mjestu bili džamija i groblje. A kud god hodimo ispod zemlje su grobovi od prije stotine i stotine godina, pa po tome ne bi ništa smjeli da kopamo. Ili ti prastari grobovi nisu muslimanski, pa nisu ni važni? A nije ni važno što se džamija u Bradini podigla na privatnom pravoslavnom imanju. Istina, iz Islamske vjerske zajednice su rekli da oni nisu u ratnom vremenu dali dozvolu za tu gradnju, pa tu džamiju treba svakako premjestiti. A eno je i danas stoji uspravna.

Isto tako su podigli crkvu na imanju one muslimanke, pa se u Republici Srpskoj svi, od crkvene vlasti do vladajućih veličina, slomiše dokazivajući da ta žena nema pravo. Jer uvijek imaju pravo samo popovi. A zvaničnici kao što su Dragan Čavić i Dragan Mikerević slomiše se slikajući se po crkvama, pokazujući time da je njihovo privatno religiozno opredjeljenje zapravo državni kanon. Ko šiša muslimane, katolike, ateiste i gnostike, sve su to ljudi drugog reda, jer je tu pravoslavlje jedina ideja koja vlada.

Kada u januaru zaredaju pravoslavni praznici i ne radi se više od pola mjeseca, to nije samo dominacija vjere nad svim ostalim, nego i neukusno zaboravljanje da od rada živimo. Ako je Republika Srpska pravoslavni entitet, a on to svakako i jeste, onda i sarajevski i zenički kanton mogu biti samo i islamski. Ako ovome dodamo da je zapadna Hercegovina katolička, stvar je već uobličena, podijelili smo ovu zemlju i na tri religiozne teritorije, na kojima je svako posadio svoje nove bogomolje. Iako postoji međureligijski dijalog, oni se ništa između sebe ne mogu dogovoriti, osim lijepih govorancija o miru i pomirenju.

Ne znam da li treba da naglasim ono što svi znamo: Sloboda vjeroispovijesti mora biti zagarantovana. Ograničenje te slobode je jedino ugrožavanje slobode drugoga. A izgleda da su kod nas tri religije militantne prema drugom i drugačijem vjerovanju, pogotovo prema nevjerovanju.
:zzz:

[Berankrsh69]

Otvorenih očiju u ružno lice


Živorad Kovačević

Tri prelomne promene u životima naroda našeg regiona, koje značajno menjaju tokove istorije, desile su se prvi put u našem dobu. Prvi put u istoriji ovog tla, umesto borbe protiv stranih zavojevača, došlo je do međusobnih ratova, teritorijalnih osvajanja, masovnog ubijanja, etničkog čišćenja i drugih zločina koje su pojedini pripadnici ovih naroda činili nad nevinim stanovništvom drugih naroda.
Kada je, najzad, uz posredovanje i vojno prisustvo međunarodne zajednice, uspostavljen mir i izvršena demokratska smena režima koji su nas uveli u ratove, došlo je do druge prekretne, ovog puta pozitivne istorijske promene. Prvi put u istoriji, sve zemlje regiona, njihovi narodi, nihove elite i njihove vlade, imaju zajedničku političku orijentaciju odnosno istovetan i neupitan strateški cilj - priključivanje velikoj demokratskoj porodici ujedinjenih evropskih nacija.
Ali, ovoga puta, takođe prvi put u istoriji, nijedna zemlja Evrope nema posebne interese ili aspiracije prema pojedinim zemljama na Balkanu, odnosno ujedinjena Evropa ima apsolutno konvergentan cilj sa zemljama regiona, o čemu uverljivo svedoči njeno nedvosmisleno opredeljenje da evropska integracija neće biti završena dok joj se ne pridruže i zemlje evropskog jugoistoka. To nije mala stvar. Još samo pre deceniju ovde su bili svi protiv svih, a Evropa, zabavljena Mastrihtom i impresionirana ujedinjenjem Nemačke, potcenila je sukobe na Balkanu i razornu energiju instrumentalizovanog agresivnog nacionalizma i kasno i neuverljivo reagovala, čime je počesto više dolivala ulje na vatru nego što je uspešno gasila požar.
Te tri istorijske odrednice su zajedničke za zemlje regiona i, na različite načine i sa različitim efektom u pojedinim sredinama, presudno utiču na oblikovanje društvene svesti i na političke procese u našim zemljama.
Naša recentna tragična prošlost je nešto što ne može i ne treba da se zaboravi i sa tim će živeti čitava jedna generacija. To nasleđe će otežavati obnovu poverenja među našim narodima i biti dugoročna inspiracija agresivnom nacionalizmu i ekstremizmu u ideologiji, politici, kulturi i najveća prepreka komunikaciji, dijalogu, saradnji i prihvatanju nenametnutog zajedništva.
Međutim, to isto nasleđe može i treba da bude shvaćeno, ne samo kao prepreka, već i kao izazov i šansa. Kad su mogli drugi u Evropi, Francuzi i Nemci, pre svega, da prevaziđu vekovne sukobe i raspirivanu mržnju i postanu okosnica ujedinjenja Evrope, zašto ne bismo mogli i mi da uradimo to isto u našem regionu? Ali, to zahteva hrabar stav i jasnu viziju, koji će voditi konsenzusu u društvu i snažnoj političkoj volji.
Neprijatna prošlost se može prevazići ne izbegavanjem da se o njoj govori, već naprotiv, gledanjem otvorenih očiju u njeno ružno lice. U eseju Pomirenje u latinoameričkom kontekstu, Charles Harper, piše: "Neki političari i verski lideri... predlažu da se ‘okrene nova stranica’ i krene dalje. Naši latinoamerički prijatelji kažu na to: ‘Polako! Nema okretanja stranice pre nego što se ona pažljivo pročita.’" Isto tako, i mi ćemo imati pravo i potrebu da se više ne vraćamo na prošlost tek onda kad se sa njom, kao društva i nacije, do kraja, pošteno, pojedinačno i zajedno, suočimo. To je jedino delotvorno prevazilaženje prošlosti i okretanje budućnosti. Bez toga nema obnove poverenja među narodima i stvaranja regionalnog zajedništva. Stoga bi neophodnost pune saradnje sa Haškim tribunalom morala da bude motivisana i obrazlagana ne samo u kontekstu izvršavanja međunarodne obaveze, od čega će zavisiti da li ćemo negde biti primljeni ili dobiti kakvu pomoć, već pre svega kao naša sopstvena potreba da raskrstimo sa tim da li su pripadnici naše nacije činili zločine i utvrdimo ko je sve to inspirisao, naređivao, organizovao i počinio, kako bi bio doveden pred lice pravde, međunarodne ili domaće.
To je u stvari i osnovna linija podele u našim društvima. Ne treba smetnuti s uma da ekstremističko-nacionalističke opcije koje dobijaju znatan broj glasova u stvari predstavljaju kontinuitet sa politikom rata i mržnje i odbojnosti prema susedima, Evropi i svetu. Za njih su "naši" haški optuženici heroji, a zločinci su samo na drugoj strani. Oni su naša žalosna veza sa našom žalosnom prošlošću i stoga je podrška toj vrsti nasleđa - među biračima, u medijima, u intelektualnoj eliti - najveća prepreka na putu ka Evropi. Taj kontinuitet ide i dalje unazad i mnogi od njih ne kriju da baštine i deo kvislinškog odnosno fašističkog nasleđa. Njihov kredo i aktivnost ne treba mešati sa postepenim nastajanjem demokratske konzervativne desnice, koja će biti prirodni element našeg budućeg evropskog ambijenta.
Ali, naše nasleđe, snažno i bogato, jeste i antifašizam, od koga ne treba zazirati zbog njegovih zloupotreba u vreme jednopartijskog sistema. Antifašizam je jedna od osnova evropskog ujedinjenja. To nije pokret, ni ideologija, ni konkretna politička opcija, već je pre svega otpor ugrožavanju demokratskih i humanističkih vrednosti i stoga i dalje vrlo savremen i aktuelan - sve dokle god ima onih koji ih ugrožavaju. Evropeizam i antifašizam predstavljaju mnogo šire osnove za konsenzus u društvu nego ideologije i politički programi i stranke, odnosno mogu da čine najmanji zajednički imenitelj i temeljnu potku za ujedinjavanje demokratskih snaga. One su lakmusov test za prepoznavanje onoga što nas vraća u prošlost ili otvara vrata za budućnost. O svemu se može razgovarati i u svemu se razlikovati, ali ne i o tome da li smo za totalan raskid i obračun sa režimima i politikom koji su doneli ratove, etnička čišćenja i mržnju među našim narodima ni o tome da li je naš cilj pridruživanje evropskim i evroatlantskim integracijama. To je ključna linija podele i to je osnova obnove poverenja među našim narodima. 8)